Update on the epidemiology and genetics of myopic refractive error

Expert Review of Ophthalmology

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 63-87

  Sherwin, Justin C ^a,b   Mackey, David A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

complex disease; genetics; heritability; myopia; refractive error; SNP; syndrome

Indexed keywords

ATROPINE; PLACEBO;

AGE DISTRIBUTION; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ALLERGIC CONJUNCTIVITIS; ANTHROPOMETRIC PARAMETERS; ASIA; AUSTRALIA; DERMATITIS; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIETARY INTAKE; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DIZYGOTIC TWINS; DOMINANT INHERITANCE; ENDOPHENOTYPE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ETHNICITY; EUROPE; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC EPISTASIS; GENETIC LINKAGE; GENETIC TRAIT; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HERITABILITY; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HUMAN GENOME; MONOZYGOTIC TWINS; MYOPIA; NONHUMAN; PHOTOSENSITIVITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PREVALENCE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REFRACTIVE SURGERY; REVIEW; SEGREGATION ANALYSIS; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; SMOKING HABIT; SOCIOECONOMICS; SPECTACLES; SPORTING EVENT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TELEVISION VIEWING; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84873366994     PISSN: 17469899     EISSN: 17469902     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/eop.12.81     Document Type: Review

References (274)

1. Ono K, Hiratsuka Y, Murakami A. Global inequality in eye health: country-level analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study. Am. J. Public Health 100(9), 1784-1788 (2010).
2. Lim CSS, Frick KD. The economics of myopia. In: Myopia: Animal Models To Clinial Trials. Beuerman RW, Saw SM, Tan DHH, Wong TY (Eds). World Scientific, Singapore (2011).
3. Lin LL, Shih YF, Hsiao CK, Chen CJ. Prevalence of myopia in Taiwanese schoolchildren: 1983 to 2000. Ann. Acad. Med. Singap. 33(1), 27-33 (2004). (Pubitemid 38478105)
4. Wang TJ, Chiang TH, Wang TH, Lin LL, Shih YF. Changes of the ocular refraction among freshmen in National Taiwan University between 1988 and 2005. Eye (Lond.) 23(5), 1168-1169 (2009).
5. Resnikoff S, Pascolini D, Mariotti SP, Pokharel GP. Global magnitude of visual impairment caused by uncorrected refractive errors in 2004. Bull. World Health Organ. 86(1), 63-70 (2008).
6. Sherwin JC, Khawaja AP, Broadway D et al. Uncorrected refractive error in older British adults: The EPIC-Norfolk Eye Study. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 96(7), 991-996 (2012).
7. He M, Zeng J, Liu Y, Xu J, Pokharel GP, Ellwein LB. Refractive error and visual impairment in urban children in southern China. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(3), 793-799 (2004). (Pubitemid 38868372)
8. Sherwin JC, Lewallen S, Courtright P. Blindness and visual impairment due to uncorrected refractive error in sub-Saharan Africa: review of recent population-based studies. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 96(7), 927-930 (2012).
9. Schneider J, Leeder SR, Gopinath B, Wang JJ, Mitchell P. Frequency, course, and impact of correctable visual impairment (uncorrected refractive error). Surv. Ophthalmol. 55(6), 539-560 (2010).
10. Lamoureux EL, Saw SM, Thumboo J et al. The impact of corrected and uncorrected refractive error on visual functioning: The Singapore Malay Eye Study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(6), 2614-2620 (2009).
11. Chen CY, Keeffe JE, Garoufalis P et al. Vision-related quality of life comparison for emmetropes, myopes after refractive surgery, and myopes wearing spectacles or contact lenses. J. Refract. Surg. 23(8), 752-759 (2007). (Pubitemid 47614568)
12. Lamoureux E, Wong HB. Quality of life and myopia. In: Myopia: Animal Models To Clinical Trials. Beuerman RW, Saw SM, Tan DHH, Wong TY (Eds). World Scientific, Singapore (2011).
13. Saw SM, Katz J, Schein OD, Chew SJ, Chan TK. Epidemiology of myopia. Epidemiol. Rev. 18(2), 175-187 (1996). (Pubitemid 27082088)
14. Jeganathan VES, Saw SM, Wong TY. Ocular morbidity of pathological myopia. In: Myopia: Animal Models To Clinial Trials. Beuerman RW, Saw SM, Tan DHH, Wong TY (Eds) World Scientific, Singapore (2011).
15. Montero JA, Ruiz-Moreno JM. Treatment of choroidal neovascularization in high myopia. Curr. Drug Targets 11(5), 630-644 (2010).
16. Rose K, Harper R, Tromans C et al. Quality of life in myopia. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 84(9), 1031-1034 (2000).
17. Lim MC, Gazzard G, Sim EL, Tong L, Saw SM. Direct costs of myopia in Singapore. Eye (Lond.) 23(5), 1086-1089 (2009).
18. Leo SW, Young TL. An evidence-based update on myopia and interventions to retard its progression. J. AAPOS 15(2), 181-189 (2011).
19. Saw SM, Shih-Yen EC, Koh A, Tan D. Interventions to retard myopia progression in children: An evidence-based update. Ophthalmology 109(3), 415-421; discussion 422 (2002). (Pubitemid 34184903)
20. Walline JJ, Lindsley K, Vedula SS, Cotter SA, Mutti DO, Twelker JD. Interventions to slow progression of myopia in children. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 12, CD004916 (2011).
21. Song YY, Wang H, Wang BS, Qi H, Rong ZX, Chen HZ. Atropine in ameliorating the progression of myopia in children with mild to moderate myopia: A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 27(4), 361-368 (2011).
22. Chia A, Chua WH, Cheung YB et al. Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia: safety and efficacy of 0.5%, 0.1%, and 0.01% doses (Atropine for the Treatment of Myopia 2). Ophthalmology 119(2), 347-354 (2012).
23. Sherwin JC, Reacher MH, Keogh RH, Khawaja AP, Mackey DA, Foster PJ. The association between time spent outdoors and myopia in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ophthalmology 119(10), 2141-2151 (2012).
24. Goldschmidt E, Fledelius HC. High myopia progression and visual impairment in a nonselected group of Danish 14-year-olds followed over 40 years. Optom. Vis. Sci. 82(4), 239-243 (2005). (Pubitemid 40546179)
25. Xu L, Wang Y, Li Y, Cui T, Li J, Jonas JB. Causes of blindness and visual impairment in urban and rural areas in Beijing: The Beijing Eye Study. Ophthalmology, 113(7), 1134. e1-11 (2006).
26. Saw SM. How blinding is pathological myopia? Br. J. Ophthalmol. 90(5), 525-526 (2006).
27. Lin LL, Shih YF, Tsai CB et al. Epidemiologic study of ocular refraction among schoolchildren in Taiwan in 1995. Optom. Vis. Sci. 76(5), 275-281 (1999). (Pubitemid 29258935)
28. Shih YF, Chiang TH, Lin LL. Lens thickness changes among schoolchildren in Taiwan. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(6), 2637-2644 (2009).
29. Saw SM, Tong L, Chua WH et al. Incidence and progression of myopia in Singaporean school children. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(1), 51-57 (2005). (Pubitemid 40041178)
30. Hyman L. Myopic and hyperopic refractive error in adults: An overview. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 14(4), 192-197 (2007). (Pubitemid 47493719)
31. Fotedar R, Mitchell P, Burlutsky G, Wang JJ. Relationship of 10-year change in refraction to nuclear cataract and axial length findings from an older population. Ophthalmology 115(8), 1273-1278, 1278.e1 (2008).
32. Hashemi H, Iribarren R, Morgan IG, Khabazkhoob M, Mohammad K, Fotouhi A. Increased hyperopia with ageing based on cycloplegic refractions in adults: The Tehran Eye Study. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 94(1), 20-23 (2010).
33. Morgan I, Rose K. How genetic is school myopia? Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 24(1), 1-38 (2005). (Pubitemid 39535154)
34. Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE et al.; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia. Arch. Ophthalmol. 122(4), 495-505 (2004). (Pubitemid 38456284)
35. Dirani M, Shekar SN, Baird PN. Adult-onset myopia: The Genes in Myopia (GEM) twin study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 49(8), 3324-3327 (2008).
36. Krishnaiah S, Srinivas M, Khanna RC, Rao GN. Prevalence and risk factors for refractive errors in the South Indian adult population: The Andhra Pradesh eye disease study. Clin. Ophthalmol. 3, 17-27 (2009).
37. Shimizu N, Nomura H, Ando F, Niino N, Miyake Y, Shimokata H. Refractive errors and factors associated with myopia in an adult Japanese population. Jpn. J. Ophthalmol. 47(1), 6-12 (2003). (Pubitemid 36173864)
38. Wu SY, Nemesure B, Leske MC. Refractive errors in a black adult population: The Barbados eye study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40(10), 2179-2184 (1999). (Pubitemid 29418370)
39. Cheng CY, Hsu WM, Liu JH, Tsai SY, Chou P. Refractive errors in an elderly Chinese population in Taiwan: The Shihpai eye study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44(11), 4630-4638 (2003). (Pubitemid 37315270)
40. Attebo K, Ivers RQ, Mitchell P. Refractive errors in an older population: The Blue Mountains eye study. Ophthalmology 106(6), 1066-1072 (1999). (Pubitemid 30191506)
41. Tarczy-Hornoch K, Ying-Lai M, Varma R; Los Angeles Latino Eye Study Group. Myopic refractive error in adult Latinos: The Los Angeles Latino eye study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47(5), 1845-1852 (2006). (Pubitemid 46768263)
42. Pan CW, Wong TY, Lavanya R et al. Prevalence and risk factors for refractive errors in Indians: The Singapore Indian eye study (SINDI). Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(6), 3166-3173 (2011).
43. Saw SM, Gazzard G, Koh D et al. Prevalence rates of refractive errors in Sumatra, Indonesia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(10), 3174-3180 (2002).
44. Ezelum C, Razavi H, Sivasubramaniam S et al.; Nigeria National Blindness and Visual Impairment Study Group. Refractive error in Nigerian adults: prevalence, type, and spectacle coverage. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(8), 5449-5456 (2011).
45. Xu L, Li J, Cui T et al. Refractive error in urban and rural adult Chinese in Beijing. Ophthalmology 112(10), 1676-1683 (2005). (Pubitemid 41400002)
46. Liang YB, Wong TY, Sun LP et al. Refractive errors in a rural Chinese adult population the Handan eye study. Ophthalmology 116(11), 2119-2127 (2009).
47. Wong TY, Foster PJ, Hee J et al. Prevalence and risk factors for refractive errors in adult Chinese in Singapore. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41(9), 2486-2494 (2000). (Pubitemid 30624374)
48. Pan CW, Ramamurthy D, Saw SM. Worldwide prevalence and risk factors for myopia. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 32(1), 3-16 (2012).
49. Au Eong KG, Tay TH, Lim MK. Race, culture and Myopia in 110,236 young Singaporean males. Singapore Med. J. 34(1), 29-32 (1993).
50. Kleinstein RN, Jones LA, Hullett S et al.; Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Ethnicity and Refractive Error Study Group. Refractive error and ethnicity in children. Arch. Ophthalmol. 121(8), 1141-1147 (2003). (Pubitemid 36962168)
51. Pokharel GP, Negrel AD, Munoz SR, Ellwein LB. Refractive error study in children: results from Mechi Zone, Nepal. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 129(4), 436-444 (2000). (Pubitemid 30184912)
52. Rudnicka AR, Owen CG, Nightingale CM, Cook DG, Whincup PH. Ethnic differences in the prevalence of myopia and ocular biometry in 10- and 11-year-old children: The Child Heart and Health Study in England (CHASE). Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 51(12), 6270-6276 (2010).
53. Morgan IG, Ohno-Matsui K, Saw SM. Myopia. Lancet 379(9827), 1739-1748 (2012).
54. Pan CW, Zheng YF, Wong TY et al. Variation in prevalence of myopia between generations of migrant indians living in Singapore. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 154(2), 376-381.e1 (2012).
55. Rose KA, Morgan IG, Smith W, Burlutsky G, Mitchell P, Saw SM. Myopia, lifestyle, and schooling in students of Chinese ethnicity in Singapore and Sydney. Arch. Ophthalmol. 126(4), 527-530 (2008). (Pubitemid 351549847)
56. Cheng D, Schmid KL, Woo GC. Myopia prevalence in ChineseYCanadian children in an optometric practice. Optom. Vis. Sci. 84(1), 21-32 (2007). (Pubitemid 46105017)
57. Fan DS, Lam DS, Lam RF et al. Prevalence, incidence, and progression of myopia of school children in Hong Kong. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(4), 1071-1075 (2004). (Pubitemid 38869009)
58. Edwards MH. The development of myopia in Hong Kong children between the ages of 7 and 12 years: A five-year longitudinal study. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 19(4), 286-294 (1999). (Pubitemid 29353826)
59. Wu SY, Yoo YJ, Nemesure B, Hennis A, Leske MC; Barbados Eye Studies Group. Nine-year refractive changes in the Barbados Eye Studies. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(11), 4032-4039 (2005). (Pubitemid 44264602)
60. Lee KE, Klein BE, Klein R, Wong TY. Changes in refraction over 10 years in an adult population: The Beaver Dam Eye study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(8), 2566-2571 (2002). (Pubitemid 34809443)
61. Raju P, Ramesh SV, Arvind H et al. Prevalence of refractive errors in a rural South Indian population. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(12), 4268-4272 (2004). (Pubitemid 39564649)
62. Bengtsson B, Grødum K. Refractive changes in the elderly. Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 77(1), 37-39 (1999). (Pubitemid 29057485)
63. Wensor M, McCarty CA, Taylor HR. Prevalence and risk factors of myopia in Victoria, Australia. Arch. Ophthalmol. 117(5), 658-663 (1999). (Pubitemid 29218434)
64. Taylor HR, Robin TA, Lansingh VC, Weih LM, Keeffe JE. A myopic shift in Australian Aboriginals: 1977-2000. Trans. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc. 101, 107-110; discussion 110 (2003).
65. Mutti DO, Zadnik K. Age-related decreases in the prevalence of myopia: longitudinal change or cohort effect? Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41(8), 2103-2107 (2000). (Pubitemid 30450980)
66. Tay MT, Au Eong KG, Ng CY, Lim MK. Myopia and educational attainment in 421,116 young Singaporean males. Ann. Acad. Med. Singap. 21(6), 785-791 (1992).
67. Saw SM, Yang A, Chan TH et al. The increase in myopia prevalence in young male singapore adults from 1996-1997 to 2009-2010. Presented at: The Association for Research and Vision in Ophthalmology. FL, USA, 2 May 2011.
68. Bar Dayan Y, Levin A, Morad Y et al. The changing prevalence of myopia in young adults: A 13-year series of population-based prevalence surveys. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(8), 2760-2765 (2005). (Pubitemid 43086696)
69. The Framingham Offspring Eye Study Group. Familial aggregation and prevalence of myopia in the Framingham Offspring Eye Study. Arch. Ophthalmol., 114(3), 326-332 (1996).
70. Rose KA, Morgan IG, Smith W, Mitchell P. High heritability of myopia does not preclude rapid changes in prevalence. Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol. 30(3), 168-172 (2002). (Pubitemid 34578162)
71. Johnson GJ, Matthews A, Perkins ES. Survey of ophthalmic conditions in a Labrador community. I. Refractive errors. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 63(6), 440-448 (1979). (Pubitemid 9159009)
72. Chen YP, Prashar A, Erichsen JT, To CH, Hocking PM, Guggenheim JA. Heritability of ocular component dimensions in chickens: genetic variants controlling susceptibility to experimentally induced myopia and pretreatment eye size are distinct. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(7), 4012-4020 (2011).
73. Meng W, Butterworth J, Malecaze F, Calvas P. Axial length of myopia: A review of current research. Ophthalmologica 225(3), 127-134 (2011).
74. Dirani M, Shekar SN, Baird PN. Evidence of shared genes in refraction and axial length: The Genes in Myopia (GEM) twin study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 49(10), 4336-4339 (2008).
75. Mutti DO, Hayes JR, Mitchell GL et al.; CLEERE Study Group. Refractive error, axial length, and relative peripheral refractive error before and after the onset of myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48(6), 2510-2519 (2007). (Pubitemid 351261199)
76. Zadnik K, Satariano WA, Mutti DO, Sholtz RI, Adams AJ. The effect of parental history of myopia on children's eye size. JAMA 271(17), 1323-1327 (1994). (Pubitemid 24132457)
77. Lam DS, Fan DS, Lam RF et al. The effect of parental history of myopia on children's eye size and growth: results of a longitudinal study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 49(3), 873-876 (2008).
78. Sng CC, Lin XY, Gazzard G et al. Peripheral refraction and refractive error in singapore chinese children. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(2), 1181-1190 (2011).
79. Fan Q, Barathi VA, Cheng CY et al. Genetic variants on chromosome 1q41 influence ocular axial length and high myopia. PLoS Genet. 8(6), e1002753 (2012).
80. Saka N, Ohno-Matsui K, Shimada N et al. Long-term changes in axial length in adult eyes with pathologic myopia. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 150(4), 562-568.e1 (2010).
81. Ojaimi E, Rose KA, Morgan IG et al. Distribution of ocular biometric parameters and refraction in a population-based study of Australian children. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(8), 2748-2754 (2005). (Pubitemid 43086694)
82. Foster PJ, Broadway DC, Hayat S et al. Refractive error, axial length and anterior chamber depth of the eye in British adults: The EPIC-Norfolk Eye Study. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 94(7), 827-830 (2010).
83. Sherwin JC, Kelly J, Hewitt AW, Kearns LS, Griffiths LR, Mackey DA. Prevalence and predictors of refractive error in a genetically isolated population: The Norfolk Island Eye Study. Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol. 39(8), 734-742 (2011).
84. Morgan A, Young R, Narankhand B, Chen S, Cottriall C, Hosking S. Prevalence rate of myopia in schoolchildren in rural Mongolia. Optom. Vis. Sci. 83(1), 53-56 (2006). (Pubitemid 43361656)
85. Rahi JS, Cumberland PM, Peckham CS. Myopia over the lifecourse: prevalence and early life influences in the 1958 British birth cohort. Ophthalmology 118(5), 797-804 (2011).
86. Saw SM, Hong RZ, Zhang MZ et al. Near-work activity and myopia in rural and urban schoolchildren in China. J. Pediatr. Ophthalmol. Strabismus 38(3), 149-155 (2001).
87. Prema R, George R, Sathyamangalam Ve R et al. Comparison of refractive errors and factors associated with spectacle use in a rural and urban South Indian population. Indian J. Ophthalmol. 56(2), 139-144 (2008).
88. Zhang M, Li L, Chen L et al. Population density and refractive error among Chinese children. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 51(10), 4969-4976 (2010).
89. Au Eong KG, Tay TH, Lim MK. Education and myopia in 110,236 young Singaporean males. Singapore Med. J. 34(6), 489-492 (1993).
90. Pärssinen TO. Relation between refraction, education, occupation, and age among 26- and 46-year-old Finns. Am. J. Optom. Physiol. Opt. 64(2), 136-143 (1987). (Pubitemid 17015082)
91. OECD. Education at a Glance, OECD Indicators. OECD, Paris, France (1997).
92. Dirani M, Shekar SN, Baird PN. The role of educational attainment in refraction: The Genes in Myopia (GEM) twin study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 49(2), 534-538 (2008).
93. Sharma A, Congdon N, Gao Y et al. Height, stunting, and refractive error among rural Chinese schoolchildren: The See Well to Learn Well project. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 149(2), 347-353.e1 (2010).
94. Niroula DR, Saha CG. Study on the refractive errors of school going children of Pokhara city in Nepal. Kathmandu Univ. Med. J. (KUMJ) 7(25), 67-72 (2009).
95. Edwards MH. Do variations in normal nutrition play a role in the development of myopia? Optom. Vis. Sci. 73(10), 638-643 (1996). (Pubitemid 26378216)
96. Lim LS, Gazzard G, Low YL et al. Dietary factors, myopia, and axial dimensions in children. Ophthalmology 117(5), 993-997.e4 (2010).
97. Chong YS, Liang Y, Tan D, Gazzard G, Stone RA, Saw SM. Association between breastfeeding and likelihood of myopia in children. JAMA 293(24), 3001-3002 (2005). (Pubitemid 40965069)
98. Sham WK, Dirani M, Chong YS et al. Breastfeeding and association with refractive error in young Singapore Chinese children. Eye (Lond.) 24(5), 875-880 (2010).
99. Rudnicka AR, Owen CG, Richards M, Wadsworth ME, Strachan DP. Effect of breastfeeding and sociodemographic factors on visual outcome in childhood and adolescence. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87(5), 1392-1399 (2008). (Pubitemid 351679782)
100. Mäntyjärvi M. Myopia and diabetes. A review. Acta Ophthalmol. Suppl. 185, 82-85 (1988).
101. Guzowski M, Wang JJ, Rochtchina E, Rose KA, Mitchell P. Five-year refractive changes in an older population: The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 110(7), 1364-1370 (2003). (Pubitemid 36842473)
102. Rani PK, Raman R, Rachapalli SR, Kulothungan V, Kumaramanickavel G, Sharma T. Prevalence of refractive errors and associated risk factors in subjects with Type 2 diabetes mellitus SN-DREAMS, report 18. Ophthalmology 117(6), 1155-1162 (2010).
103. Jacobsen N, Jensen H, Lund-Andersen H, Goldschmidt E Is poor glycaemic control in diabetic patients a risk factor of myopia? Acta Ophthalmol. 86(5), 510-514 (2008).
104. Eva PR, Pascoe PT, Vaughan DG. Refractive change in hyperglycaemia: hyperopia, not myopia. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 66(8), 500-505 (1982). (Pubitemid 12049950)
105. Chen SJ, Tung TH, Liu JH et al. Prevalence and associated factors of refractive errors among Type 2 diabetics in Kinmen, Taiwan. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 15(1), 2-9 (2008).
106. Stone RA, Wilson LB, Ying GS et al. Associations between childhood refraction and parental smoking. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47(10), 4277-4287 (2006). (Pubitemid 46579349)
107. Xu L, You QS, Jonas JB. Refractive error, ocular and general parameters and ophthalmic diseases. The Beijing Eye Study. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 248(5), 721-729 (2010).
108. Xu L, You QS, Jonas JB. Prevalence of alcohol consumption and risk of ocular diseases in a general population: The Beijing Eye Study. Ophthalmology 116(10), 1872-1879 (2009).
109. Khandekar R, Al Harby S, Mohammed AJ. Determinants of myopia among Omani school children: A caseYcontrol study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 12(3), 207-213 (2005). (Pubitemid 41702818)
110. Saw SM, Chua WH, Hong CY et al. Height and its relationship to refraction and biometry parameters in Singapore Chinese children. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(5), 1408-1413 (2002).
111. Wu HM, Gupta A, Newland HS, Selva D, Aung T, Casson RJ. Association between stature, ocular biometry and refraction in an adult population in rural Myanmar: The Meiktila eye study. Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol. 35(9), 834-839 (2007).
112. Jung SK, Lee JH, Kakizaki H, Jee D. Prevalence of myopia and its association with body stature and educational level in 19-year-old male conscripts in Seoul, South Korea. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 53(9), 5579-5583 (2012).
113. Dirani M, Islam A, Baird PN. Body stature and myopia Y the Genes in Myopia (GEM) twin study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 15(3), 135-139 (2008). (Pubitemid 351874150)
114. Rosner M, Laor A, Belkin M. Myopia and stature: findings in a population of 106,926 males. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 5(1), 1-6 (1995).
115. Zhang J, Hur YM, Huang W, Ding X, Feng K, He M. Shared genetic determinants of axial length and height in children: The Guangzhou twin eye study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 129(1), 63-68 (2011).
116. Prashar A, Hocking PM, Erichsen JT, Fan Q, Saw SM, Guggenheim JA. Common determinants of body size and eye size in chickens from an advanced intercross line. Exp. Eye Res. 89(1), 42-48 (2009).
117. Jacobsen N, Jensen H, Goldschmidt E. Prevalence of myopia in Danish conscripts. Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 85(2), 165-170 (2007).
118. Jacobsen N, Jensen H, Goldschmidt E. Does the level of physical activity in university students influence development and progression of myopia? Y a 2-year prospective cohort study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 49(4), 1322-1327 (2008).
119. Pärssinen O, Leskinen AL, Era P, Heikkinen E. Myopia, use of eyes, and living habits among men aged 33-37 years. Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh.) 63(4), 395-400 (1985). (Pubitemid 15227395)
120. Deere K, Williams C, Leary S et al. Myopia and later physical activity in adolescence: A prospective study. Br. J. Sports Med. 43(7), 542-544 (2009).
121. Mutti DO, Mitchell GL, Moeschberger ML, Jones LA, Zadnik K. Parental myopia, near work, school achievement, and children's refractive error. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(12), 3633-3640 (2002). (Pubitemid 35470597)
122. Khader YS, Batayha WQ, Abdul-Aziz SM, Al-Shiekh-Khalil MI. Prevalence and risk indicators of myopia among schoolchildren in Amman, Jordan. East. Mediterr. Health J. 12(3-4), 434-439 (2006). (Pubitemid 44515223)
123. Dirani M, Tong L, Gazzard G et al. Outdoor activity and myopia in Singapore teenage children. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 93(8), 997-1000 (2009).
124. Guggenheim JA, Northstone K, McMahon G et al. Time outdoors and physical activity as predictors of incident myopia in childhood: A prospective cohort study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 53(6), 2856-2865 (2012).
125. Jones LA, Sinnott LT, Mutti DO, Mitchell GL, Moeschberger ML, Zadnik K. Parental history of myopia, sports and outdoor activities, and future myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48(8), 3524-3532 (2007). (Pubitemid 351261085)
126. Yi JH, Li RR. Influence of near-work and outdoor activities on myopia progression in school children. Zhongguo Dang Dai Er Ke Za Zhi 13(1), 32-35 (2011).
127. Sherwin JC, Hewitt AW, Coroneo MT, Kearns LS, Griffiths LR, Mackey DA. The association between time spent outdoors and myopia using a novel biomarker of outdoor light exposure. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 53(8), 4363-4370 (2012).
128. Sherwin JC, Hewitt AW, Kearns LS, Coroneo MT, Griffiths LR, Mackey DA. Distribution of conjunctival ultraviolet autofluorescence in a population-based study: The Norfolk Island Eye Study. Eye (Lond.) 25(7), 893-900 (2011).
129. Sherwin JC, McKnight CM, Hewitt AW, Griffiths LR, Coroneo MT, Mackey DA. Reliability and validity of conjunctival ultraviolet autofluorescence measurement. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 96(6), 801-805 (2012).
130. Mutti DO, Zadnik K. Has near work's star fallen? Optom. Vis. Sci. 86(2), 76-78 (2009).
131. Yingyong P. Risk factors for refractive errors in primary school children (6-12 years old) in Nakhon Pathom Province. J. Med. Assoc. Thai. 93(11), 1288-1293 (2010).
132. McBrien NA, Adams DW. A longitudinal investigation of adult-onset and adultprogression of myopia in an occupational group. Refractive and biometric findings. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 38(2), 321-333 (1997). (Pubitemid 27085688)
133. Jones-Jordan LA, Mitchell GL, Cotter SA et al.; CLEERE Study Group. Visual activity before and after the onset of juvenile myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(3), 1841-1850 (2011).
134. Czepita D, Mojsa A, Ustianowska M, Czepita M, Lachowicz E. Reading, writing, working on a computer or watching television, and myopia. Klin. Oczna 112(10-12), 293-295 (2010).
135. Wu PC, Tsai CL, Hu CH, Yang YH. Effects of outdoor activities on myopia among rural school children in Taiwan. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 17(5), 338-342 (2010).
136. Duggal P, Ibay G, Klein AP. Current gene discovery strategies for ocular conditions. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(10), 7761-7770 (2011).
137. Wojciechowski R. Nature and nurture: The complex genetics of myopia and refractive error. Clin. Genet. 79(4), 301-320 (2011).
138. Hornbeak DM, Young TL. Myopia genetics: A review of current research and emerging trends. Curr. Opin. Ophthalmol. 20(5), 356-362 (2009).
139. Edwards MH. Effect of parental myopia on the development of myopia in Hong Kong Chinese. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 18(6), 477-483 (1998). (Pubitemid 28508708)
140. Goss DA, Jackson TW. Clinical findings before the onset of myopia in youth: 4. Parental history of myopia. Optom. Vis. Sci. 73(4), 279-282 (1996).
141. Young TL, Metlapally R, Shay AE. Complex trait genetics of refractive error. Arch. Ophthalmol. 125(1), 38-48 (2007). (Pubitemid 46072374)
142. Liang CL, Yen E, Su JY et al. Impact of family history of high myopia on level and onset of myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(10), 3446-3452 (2004). (Pubitemid 39298561)
143. Low W, Dirani M, Gazzard G et al. Family history, near work, outdoor activity, and myopia in Singapore Chinese preschool children. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 94(8), 1012-1016 (2010).
144. Visscher PM, Hill WG, Wray NR. Heritability in the genomics era Y concepts and misconceptions. Nat. Rev. Genet. 9(4), 255-266 (2008). (Pubitemid 351399832)
145. Falconer D. Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. Ronald Press, New York, NY, USA (1960).
146. Sanfilippo PG, Hewitt AW, Hammond CJ, Mackey DA. The heritability of ocular traits. Surv. Ophthalmol. 55(6), 561-583 (2010).
147. Dirani M, Chamberlain M, Shekar SN et al. Heritability of refractive error and ocular biometrics: The Genes in Myopia (GEM) twin study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47(11), 4756-4761 (2006). (Pubitemid 46586372)
148. Zhu G, Hewitt AW, Ruddle JB et al. Genetic dissection of myopia: evidence for linkage of ocular axial length to chromosome 5q. Ophthalmology 115(6), 1053-1057.e2 (2008).
149. Hopper J. Why 'common environmental effects' are so uncommon in the literature. In: Advances in Twin and Sib-Pair Analysis. Spector T, Snieder H, Macgregor A (Eds). Oxford University Press, London, UK 151-165 (2000).
150. Klein AP, Duggal P, Lee KE, Klein R, Bailey-Wilson JE, Klein BE. Support for polygenic influences on ocular refractive error. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(2), 442-446 (2005). (Pubitemid 40270320)
151. Paget S, Vitezica ZG, Malecaze F, Calvas P. Heritability of refractive value and ocular biometrics. Exp. Eye Res. 86(2), 290-295 (2008).
152. Logan NS, Gilmartin B, Marr JE, Stevenson MR, Ainsworth Jr. Community-based study of the association of high myopia in children with ocular and systemic disease. Optom. Vis. Sci. 81(1), 11-13 (2004). (Pubitemid 38160806)
153. Fitzgerald DE, Chung I, Krumholtz I. An analysis of high myopia in a pediatric population less than 10 years of age. Optometry 76(2), 102-114 (2005).
154. Yang Y, Li X, Yan N, Cai S, Liu X. Myopia: A collagen disease? Med. Hypotheses 73(4), 485-487 (2009).
155. Wenick AS, Baranano DE. Evaluation and management of pediatric rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. Saudi J. Ophthalmol. 26(3), 255-263 (2012).
156. Winterpacht A, Hilbert M, Schwarze U, Mundlos S, Spranger J, Zabel BU. Kniest and Stickler dysplasia phenotypes caused by collagen type II gene (COL2A1) defect. Nat. Genet. 3(4), 323-326 (1993). (Pubitemid 23112957)
157. Mutti DO, Cooper ME, O'Brien S et al. Candidate gene and locus analysis of myopia. Mol. Vis. 13, 1012-1019 (2007). (Pubitemid 47019434)
158. Morgan I, Rose K. GeneYenvironment interactions in the aetiology of myopia. In: Myopia: Animal Models to Clinical Trials. Beuerman RW, Saw SM, Tan DHH, Wong TY (Eds). World Scientific, Singapore (2011).
159. Paget S, Julia S, Vitezica ZG, Soler V, Malecaze F, Calvas P. Linkage analysis of high myopia susceptibility locus in 26 families. Mol. Vis. 14, 2566-2574 (2008).
160. Naiglin L, Gazagne C, Dallongeville F et al. A genome wide scan for familial high myopia suggests a novel locus on chromosome 7q36. J. Med. Genet. 39(2), 118-124 (2002). (Pubitemid 34146381)
161. Shi Y, Li Y, Zhang D et al. Exome sequencing identifies ZNF644 mutations in high myopia. PLoS Genet. 7(6), e1002084 (2011).
162. Tran-Viet KN, St Germain E, Soler V et al. Study of a US cohort supports the role of ZNF644 and high-grade myopia susceptibility. Mol. Vis. 18, 937-944 (2012).
163. Klein AP, Duggal P, Lee KE, Klein R, Bailey-Wilson JE, Klein BE. Confirmation of linkage to ocular refraction on chromosome 22q and identification of a novel linkage region on 1q. Arch. Ophthalmol. 125(1), 80-85 (2007). (Pubitemid 46072380)
164. Ciner E, Wojciechowski R, Ibay G, Bailey-Wilson JE, Stambolian D. Genomewide scan of ocular refraction in AfricanYAmerican families shows significant linkage to chromosome 7p15. Genet. Epidemiol. 32(5), 454-463 (2008).
165. Ciner E, Ibay G, Wojciechowski R et al. Genome-wide scan of AfricanYAmerican and white families for linkage to myopia. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 147(3), 512-517.e2 (2009).
166. Abbott D, Li YJ, Guggenheim JA et al. An international collaborative family-based whole genome quantitative trait linkage scan for myopic refractive error. Mol. Vis. 18, 720-729 (2012).
167. Li YJ, Guggenheim JA, Bulusu A et al. An international collaborative family-based whole-genome linkage scan for high-grade myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(7), 3116-3127 (2009).
168. Mordechai S, Gradstein L, Pasanen A et al. High myopia caused by a mutation in LEPREL1, encoding prolyl 3-hydroxylase 2. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 89(3), 438-445 (2011).
169. Ratnamala U, Lyle R, Rawal R et al. Refinement of the X-linked nonsyndromic high-grade myopia locus MYP1 on Xq28 and exclusion of 13 known positional candidate genes by direct sequencing. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(9), 6814-6819 (2011).
170. Scavello GS Jr, Paluru PC, Zhou J, White PS, Rappaport EF, Young TL. Genomic structure and organization of the high grade Myopia-2 locus (MYP2) critical region: mutation screening of 9 positional candidate genes. Mol. Vis. 11, 97-110 (2005). (Pubitemid 41358303)
171. Inamori Y, Ota M, Inoko H et al. The COL1A1 gene and high myopia susceptibility in Japanese. Hum. Genet. 122(2), 151-157 (2007). (Pubitemid 47241780)
172. Chen ZT, Wang IJ, Shih YF, Lin LL. The association of haplotype at the lumican gene with high myopia susceptibility in Taiwanese patients. Ophthalmology 116(10), 1920-1927 (2009).
173. Majava M, Bishop PN, Hägg P et al. Novel mutations in the small leucine-rich repeat protein/proteoglycan (SLRP) genes in high myopia. Hum. Mutat. 28(4), 336-344 (2007). (Pubitemid 46542920)
174. Wojciechowski R, Bailey-Wilson JE, Stambolian D. Association of matrix metalloproteinase gene polymorphisms with refractive error in Amish and Ashkenazi families. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 51(10), 4989-4995 (2010).
175. Hall NF, Gale CR, Ye S, Martyn CN. Myopia and polymorphisms in genes for matrix metalloproteinases. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(6), 2632-2636 (2009).
176. Mak JY, Yap MK, Fung WY, Ng PW, Yip SP. Association of IGF1 gene haplotypes with high myopia in Chinese adults. Arch. Ophthalmol. 130(2), 209-216 (2012).
177. Veerappan S, Pertile KK, Islam AF et al. Role of the hepatocyte growth factor gene in refractive error. Ophthalmology 117(2), 239-245.e1 (2010).
178. Han W, Yap MK, Wang J, Yip SP. Family-based association analysis of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) gene polymorphisms in high myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47(6), 2291-2299 (2006). (Pubitemid 351639807)
179. Yanovitch T, Li YJ, Metlapally R, Abbott D, Viet KN, Young TL. Hepatocyte growth factor and myopia: genetic association analyses in a Caucasian population. Mol. Vis. 15, 1028-1035 (2009).
180. Metlapally R, Ki CS, Li YJ et al. Genetic association of insulin-like growth factor-1 polymorphisms with high-grade myopia in an international family cohort. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 51(9), 4476-4479 (2010).
181. Hodos W. Avian models of experimental myopia: environmental factors in the regulation of eye growth. Ciba Found. Symp. 155, 149-156; discussion 156 (1990).
182. Mutti DO, Cooper ME, Dragan E et al.; CLEERE Study Group. Vitamin D receptor (VDR) and group-specific component (GC, vitamin D-binding protein) polymorphisms in myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(6), 3818-3824 (2011).
183. Annamaneni S, Bindu CH, Reddy KP, Vishnupriya S. Association of vitamin D receptor gene start codon (Fok1) polymorphism with high myopia. Oman J. Ophthalmol. 4(2), 57-62 (2011).
184. Wang J, Wang P, Gao Y, Li S, Xiao X, Zhang Q. High myopia is not associated with single nucleotide polymorphisms in the COL2A1 gene in the Chinese population. Mol. Med. Report. 5(1), 133-137 (2012).
185. Lam DS, Lee WS, Leung YF et al. TGFβ-induced factor: A candidate gene for high myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44(3), 1012-1015 (2003). (Pubitemid 36297814)
186. Wang IJ, Chiang TH, Shih YF et al. The association of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the 5′-regulatory region of the lumican gene with susceptibility to high myopia in Taiwan. Mol. Vis. 12, 852-857 (2006).
187. Wang P, Li S, Xiao X et al. High myopia is not associated with the SNPs in the TGIF, lumican, TGFB1, and HGF genes. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(4), 1546-1551 (2009).
188. Pertile KK, Schäche M, Islam FM et al. Assessment of TGIF as a candidate gene for myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 49(1), 49-54 (2008).
189. Hasumi Y, Inoko H, Mano S et al. Analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms at 13 loci within the transforming growth factor-induced factor gene shows no association with high myopia in Japanese subjects. Immunogenetics 58(12), 947-953 (2006). (Pubitemid 44791228)
190. Hayashi T, Inoko H, Nishizaki R, Ohno S, Mizuki N. Exclusion of transforming growth factor-β1 as a candidate gene for myopia in the Japanese. Jpn. J. Ophthalmol. 51(2), 96-99 (2007). (Pubitemid 46536764)
191. Li J, Zhang QJ, Xiao XS et al. The SNPs analysis of encoding sequence of interacting factor gene in Chinese population. Zhonghua Yi Xue Yi Chuan Xue Za Zhi 20(5), 454-456 (2003). (Pubitemid 37267509)
192. Scavello GS, Paluru PC, Ganter WR, Young TL. Sequence variants in the transforming growth β-induced factor (TGIF) gene are not associated with high myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(7), 2091-2097 (2004). (Pubitemid 38902575)
193. Verhoeven VJ, Hysi PG, Saw SM et al. Large scale international replication and meta-analysis study confirms association of the 15q14 locus with myopia. The CREAM consortium. Hum. Genet. 131(9), 1467-1480 (2012).
194. Hysi PG, Young TL, Mackey DA et al. A genome-wide association study for myopia and refractive error identifies a susceptibility locus at 15q25. Nat. Genet. 42(10), 902-905 (2010).
195. Solouki AM, Verhoeven VJ, van Duijn CM et al. A genome-wide association study identifies a susceptibility locus for refractive errors and myopia at 15q14. Nat. Genet. 42(10), 897-901 (2010).
196. Kihara AH, Paschon V, Cardoso CM et al. Connexin36, an essential element in the rod pathway, is highly expressed in the essentially rodless retina of Gallus gallus. J. Comp. Neurol. 512(5), 651-663 (2009).
197. Jobling AI, Gentle A, Metlapally R, McGowan BJ, McBrien NA. Regulation of scleral cell contraction by transforming growth factor-β and stress: competing roles in myopic eye growth. J. Biol. Chem. 284(4), 2072-2079 (2009).
198. Kiefer AKJY, Tung JY, Hinds DA et al. Genetics of myopia in a participant driven, web-based cohort. Presented at: American Society of Human Genetics Annual Meeting, Program Number: 2115W. San Francisco, CA, USA, 6-10 November 2012.
199. Li YJ, Goh L, Khor CC et al. Genomewide association studies reveal genetic variants in CTNND2 for high myopia in Singapore Chinese. Ophthalmology 118(2), 368-375 (2011).
200. Lu B, Jiang D, Wang P et al. Replication study supports CTNND2 as a susceptibility gene for high myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(11), 8258-8261 (2011).
201. Duparc RH, Boutemmine D, Champagne MP, Tétreault N, Bernier G. Pax6 is required for Δ-catenin/neurojugin expression during retinal, cerebellar and cortical development in mice. Dev. Biol. 300(2), 647-655 (2006). (Pubitemid 44909097)
202. Han S, Chen P, Fan Q et al. Association of variants in FRAP1 and PDGFRA with corneal curvature in Asian populations from Singapore. Hum. Mol. Genet. 20(18), 3693-3698 (2011).
203. Xiang F, He M, Morgan IG. The impact of parental myopia on myopia in Chinese children: population-based evidence. Optom. Vis. Sci. 89(10), 1487-1496 (2012).
204. Chen YP, Hocking PM, Wang L et al. Selective breeding for susceptibility to myopia reveals a geneYenvironment interaction. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(7), 4003-4011 (2011).
205. Wallman J, Gottlieb MD, Rajaram V, Fugate-Wentzek LA. Local retinal regions control local eye growth and myopia. Science 237(4810), 73-77 (1987). (Pubitemid 17096939)
206. Wallman J, Winawer J. Homeostasis of eye growth and the question of myopia. Neuron 43(4), 447-468 (2004). (Pubitemid 39094673)
207. Saw SM, Nieto FJ, Katz J, Schein OD, Levy B, Chew SJ. Familial clustering and myopia progression in Singapore school children. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 8(4), 227-236 (2001). (Pubitemid 32681943)
208. Wojciechowski R, Yee SS, Simpson CL, Bailey-Wilson JE, Stambolian D. Matrix metalloproteinases and educational attainment in refractive error: evidence of geneYenvironment interactions in the age-related eye disease study. Ophthalmology doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.07.078 (2012) (Epub ahead of print).
209. Mutti DO, Zadnik K, Adams AJ. Myopia. The nature versus nurture debate goes on. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 37(6), 952-957 (1996). (Pubitemid 26164226)
210. Nakanishi H, Yamada R, Gotoh N et al. A genome-wide association analysis identified a novel susceptible locus for pathological myopia at 11q24.1. PLoS Genet. 5(9), e1000660 (2009).
211. Wiggs JL. Genetics and glaucoma. Ophthalmol. Clin. North Am. 13, 481-488 (2000).
212. Baird PN, Schäche M, Dirani M. The GEnes in Myopia (GEM) study in understanding the aetiology of refractive errors. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 29(6), 520-542 (2010).
213. Ptak C, Petronis A. Epigenetics and complex disease: from etiology to new therapeutics. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 48, 257-276 (2008). (Pubitemid 351738154)
214. Hewitt AW, Wang JJ, Liang H, Craig JE. Epigenetic effects on eye diseases. Exp. Rev. Ophthalmol. 7(2), 127-134 (2012).
215. Zhou X, Ji F, An J et al. Experimental murine myopia induces collagen type Ia1 (COL1A1) DNA methylation and altered COL1A1 messenger RNA expression in sclera. Mol. Vis. 18, 1312-1324 (2012).
216. Duan X, Lu Q, Xue P et al. Proteomic analysis of aqueous humor from patients with myopia. Mol. Vis. 14, 370-377 (2008). (Pubitemid 351377238)
217. Katz J, Tielsch JM, Sommer A. Prevalence and risk factors for refractive errors in an adult inner city population. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 38(2), 334-340 (1997). (Pubitemid 27085689)
218. Wang Q, Klein BE, Klein R, Moss SE. Refractive status in the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 35(13), 4344-4347 (1994). (Pubitemid 24377506)
219. Schellini SA, Durkin SR, Hoyama E et al. Prevalence of refractive errors in a Brazilian population: The Botucatu eye study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 16(2), 90-97 (2009).
220. Landers J, Henderson T, Craig J. Prevalence and associations of refractive error in indigenous Australians within central Australia: The Central Australian Ocular Health Study. Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol. 38(4), 381-386 (2010).
221. Dandona R, Dandona L, Naduvilath TJ, Srinivas M, McCarty CA, Rao GN. Refractive errors in an urban population in Southern India: The Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40(12), 2810-2818 (1999). (Pubitemid 29521593)
222. He M, Huang W, Li Y, Zheng Y, Yin Q, Foster PJ. Refractive error and biometry in older Chinese adults: The Liwan eye study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(11), 5130-5136 (2009).
223. Ostadimoghaddam H, Fotouhi A, Hashemi H et al. Prevalence of the refractive errors by age and gender: The Mashhad eye study of Iran. Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol. 39(8), 743-751 (2011).
224. Bourne RR, Dineen BP, Ali SM, Noorul Huq DM, Johnson GJ. Prevalence of refractive error in Bangladeshi adults: results of the National Blindness and Low Vision Survey of Bangladesh. Ophthalmology 111(6), 1150-1160 (2004). (Pubitemid 38736994)
225. Midelfart A, Kinge B, Midelfart S, Lydersen S. Prevalence of refractive errors in young and middle-aged adults in Norway. Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 80(5), 501-505 (2002). (Pubitemid 35243854)
226. Antón A, Andrada MT, Mayo A, Portela J, Merayo J. Epidemiology of refractive errors in an adult European population: The Segovia study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 16(4), 231-237 (2009).
227. Saw SM, Chan YH, Wong WL et al. Prevalence and risk factors for refractive errors in the Singapore Malay Eye Survey. Ophthalmology 115(10), 1713-1719 (2008).
228. Sawada A, Tomidokoro A, Araie M, Iwase A, Yamamoto T; Tajimi Study Group. Refractive errors in an elderly Japanese population: The Tajimi study. Ophthalmology 115(2), 363-370.e3 (2008).
229. Schwartz M, Haim M, Skarsholm D. X-linked myopia: Bornholm eye disease. Linkage to DNA markers on the distal part of Xq. Clin. Genet. 38(4), 281-286 (1990). (Pubitemid 20340850)
230. Young TL, Ronan SM, Drahozal LA et al. Evidence that a locus for familial high myopia maps to chromosome 18p. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 63(1), 109-119 (1998). (Pubitemid 30428325)
231. Paluru P, Ronan SM, Heon E et al. New locus for autosomal dominant high myopia maps to the long arm of chromosome 17. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44(5), 1830-1836 (2003). (Pubitemid 36520269)
232. Stambolian D, Ibay G, Reider L et al. Genomewide linkage scan for myopia susceptibility loci among Ashkenazi Jewish families shows evidence of linkage on chromosome 22q12. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75(3), 448-459 (2004). (Pubitemid 39095820)
233. Hammond CJ, Andrew T, Mak YT, Spector TD. A susceptibility locus for myopia in the normal population is linked to the PAX6 gene region on chromosome 11: A genomewide scan of dizygotic twins. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75(2), 294-304 (2004). (Pubitemid 38943872)
234. Andrew T, Maniatis N, Carbonaro F et al. Identification and replication of three novel myopia common susceptibility gene loci on chromosome 3q26 using linkage and linkage disequilibrium mapping. PLoS Genet. 4(10), e1000220 (2008).
235. Zhang Q, Guo X, Xiao X, Jia X, Li S, Hejtmancik JF. A new locus for autosomal dominant high myopia maps to 4q22-q27 between D4S1578 and D4S1612. Mol. Vis. 11, 554-560 (2005). (Pubitemid 41410221)
236. Paluru PC, Nallasamy S, Devoto M, Rappaport EF, Young TL. Identification of a novel locus on 2q for autosomal dominant high-grade myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(7), 2300-2307 (2005). (Pubitemid 43119472)
237. Zhang Q, Guo X, Xiao X, Jia X, Li S, Hejtmancik JF. Novel locus for X linked recessive high myopia maps to Xq23-q25 but outside MYP1. J. Med. Genet. 43(5), e20 (2006).
238. Wojciechowski R, Moy C, Ciner E et al. Genomewide scan in Ashkenazi Jewish families demonstrates evidence of linkage of ocular refraction to a QTL on chromosome 1p36. Hum. Genet. 119(4), 389-399 (2006).
239. Nallasamy S, Paluru PC, Devoto M, Wasserman NF, Zhou J, Young TL. Genetic linkage study of high-grade myopia in a Hutterite population from South Dakota. Mol. Vis. 13, 229-236 (2007).
240. Lam CY, Tam PO, Fan DS et al. A genome-wide scan maps a novel high myopia locus to 5p15. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 49(9), 3768-3778 (2008).
241. Yang Z, Xiao X, Li S, Zhang Q. Clinical and linkage study on a consanguineous Chinese family with autosomal recessive high myopia. Mol. Vis. 15, 312-318 (2009).
242. Ma JH, Shen SH, Zhang GW et al. Identification of a locus for autosomal dominant high myopia on chromosome 5p13.3-p15.1 in a Chinese family. Mol. Vis. 16, 2043-2054 (2010).
243. Shi Y, Qu J, Zhang D et al. Genetic variants at 13q12.12 are associated with high myopia in the Han Chinese population. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 88(6), 805-813 (2011).
244. Liu HP, Lin YJ, Lin WY et al. A novel genetic variant of BMP2K contributes to high myopia. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 23(6), 362-367 (2009).
245. Lin HJ, Wan L, Tsai Y, Chen WC, Tsai SW, Tsai FJ. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor 1 gene polymorphisms associated with high myopia. Mol. Vis. 15, 1774-1780 (2009).
246. Liang CL, Hung KS, Tsai YY, Chang W, Wang HS, Juo SH. Systematic assessment of the tagging polymorphisms of the COL1A1 gene for high myopia. J. Hum. Genet. 52(4), 374-377 (2007). (Pubitemid 46496291)
247. Yip SP, Leung KH, Fung WY, Ng PW, Sham PC, Yap MK. A DNA pooling-based caseYcontrol study of myopia candidate genes COL11A1, COL18A1, FBN1, and PLOD1 in a Chinese population. Mol. Vis. 17, 810-821 (2011).
248. Ho DW, Yap MK, Ng PW, Fung WY, Yip SP. Association of high myopia with crystallin β A4 (CRYBA4) gene polymorphisms in the linkage-identified MYP6 locus. PLoS ONE 7(6), e40238 (2012).
249. Yip SP, Leung KH, Ng PW, Fung WY, Sham PC, Yap MK. Evaluation of proteoglycan gene polymorphisms as risk factors in the genetic susceptibility to high myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(9), 6396-6403 (2011).
250. Wang P, Li S, Xiao X, Guo X, Zhang Q. An evaluation of OPTC and EPYC as candidate genes for high myopia. Mol. Vis. 15, 2045-2049 (2009).
251. Li T, Xiao X, Li S, Xing Y, Guo X, Zhang Q. Evaluation of EGR1 as a candidate gene for high myopia. Mol. Vis. 14, 1309-1312 (2008). (Pubitemid 352025118)
252. Lin HJ, Wan L, Tsai Y et al. Sclera-related gene polymorphisms in high myopia. Mol. Vis. 15, 1655-1663 (2009).
253. Paluru PC, Scavello GS, Ganter WR, Young TL. Exclusion of lumican and fibromodulin as candidate genes in MYP3 linked high grade myopia. Mol. Vis. 10, 917-922 (2004). (Pubitemid 41358200)
254. Rydzanicz M, Nowak DM, Karolak JA et al. IGF-1 gene polymorphisms in Polish families with high-grade myopia. Mol. Vis. 17, 2428-2439 (2011).
255. Zhao YY, Zhang FJ, Zhu SQ et al. The association of a single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter region of the LAMA1 gene with susceptibility to Chinese high myopia. Mol. Vis. 17, 1003-1010 (2011).
256. Sasaki S, Ota M, Meguro A et al. A single nucleotide polymorphism analysis of the LAMA1 gene in Japanese patients with high myopia. Clin. Ophthalmol. 1(3), 289-295 (2007).
257. Dai L, Li Y, Du CY et al. Ten SNPs of PAX6, Lumican, and MYOC genes are not associated with high myopia in Han Chinese. Ophthalmic Genet. 33(3), 171-178 (2012).
258. Schache M, Chen CY, Dirani M, Baird PN. The hepatocyte growth factor receptor (MET) gene is not associated with refractive error and ocular biometrics in a Caucasian population. Mol. Vis. 15, 2599-2605 (2009).
259. Nakanishi H, Hayashi H, Yamada R et al. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the promoter region of matrix metalloproteinase-1, -2, and -3 in Japanese with high myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 51(9), 4432-4436 (2010).
260. Leung KH, Yiu WC, Yap MK et al. Systematic investigation of the relationship between high myopia and polymorphisms of the MMP2, TIMP2, and TIMP3 genes by a DNA pooling approach. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(6), 3893-3900 (2011).
261. Liang CL, Wang HS, Hung KS et al. Evaluation of MMP3 and TIMP1 as candidate genes for high myopia in young Taiwanese men. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 142(3), 518-520 (2006).
262. Vatavuk Z, Skunca Herman J, Bencic G et al. Common variant in myocilin gene is associated with high myopia in isolated population of Korcula Island, Croatia. Croat. Med. J. 50(1), 17-22 (2009).
263. Zayats T, Yanovitch T, Creer RC et al. Myocilin polymorphisms and high myopia in subjects of European origin. Mol. Vis. 15, 213-222 (2009).
264. Han W, Leung KH, Fung WY et al. Association of PAX6 polymorphisms with high myopia in Han Chinese nuclear families. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(1), 47-56 (2009).
265. Hewitt AW, Kearns LS, Jamieson RV, Williamson KA, van Heyningen V, Mackey DA. PAX6 mutations may be associated with high myopia. Ophthalmic Genet. 28(3), 179-182 (2007). (Pubitemid 47493770)
266. Liang CL, Hsi E, Chen KC, Pan YR, Wang YS, Juo SH. A functional polymorphism at 3́UTR of the PAX6 gene may confer risk for extreme myopia in the Chinese. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(6), 3500-3505 (2011).
267. Tsai YY, Chiang CC, Lin HJ, Lin JM, Wan L, Tsai FJ. A PAX6 gene polymorphism is associated with genetic predisposition to extreme myopia. Eye (Lond.) 22(4), 576-581 (2008). (Pubitemid 351560423)
268. Simpson CL, Hysi P, Bhattacharya SS et al. The Roles of PAX6 and SOX2 in myopia: lessons from the 1958 British birth cohort. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48(10), 4421-4425 (2007). (Pubitemid 351260954)
269. Veerappan S, Schäche M, Pertile KK et al. The retinoic acid receptor α (RARA) gene is not associated with myopia, hypermetropia, and ocular biometric measures. Mol. Vis. 15, 1390-1397 (2009).
270. Hysi PG, Simpson CL, Fok YK et al. Common polymorphisms in the SERPINI2 gene are associated with refractive error in the 1958 British Birth Cohort. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 53(1), 440-447 (2012).
271. Zhu MM, Yap MKH, Ho DW et al. Investigating the relationship between UMODL1 gene polymorphisms and high myopia: A case-control study in Chinese. BMC Med. Genet. 13, 64 (2012).
272. Hayashi H, Yamashiro K, Nakanishi H et al. Association of 15q14 and 15q25 with high myopia in Japanese. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(7), 4853-4858 (2011).
273. Gao Y, Wang P, Li S et al. Common variants in chromosome 4q25 are associated with myopia in Chinese adults. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 32(1), 68-73 (2012).
274. Li Z, Qu J, Xu X et al. A genome-wide association study reveals association between common variants in an intergenic region of 4q25 and high-grade myopia in the Chinese Han population. Hum. Mol. Genet. 20(14), 2861-2868 (2011).