How genetic is school myopia?

Progress in Retinal and Eye Research

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 1-38

  Morgan, Ian ^a   Rose, Kathryn ^b  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN AMERICAN; CHROMOSOMAL LOCALIZATION; CHROMOSOME ABERRATION; COHORT ANALYSIS; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DATA ANALYSIS; DEMOGRAPHY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC ANALYSIS; GENETIC HETEROGENEITY; GENETIC LINKAGE; GENETIC SCREENING; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HERITABILITY; HUMAN; JAPAN; MONGOLIA; MYOPIA; OPTICS; PATHOGENESIS; POPULATION RESEARCH; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REFRACTION ERROR; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCHOOL; SINGAPORE; STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE; TAIWAN; TWINS; URBANIZATION; VIET NAM; VISUAL IMPAIRMENT;

ADOLESCENT; CHILD; FEMALE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; MALE; MYOPIA; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; VARIATION (GENETICS); WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 8844228081     PISSN: 13509462     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2004.06.004     Document Type: Review

References (319)

1. C.R. Agnew Nearsightedness in the public schools N. Y. Med. Rec. 12 1877 34
2. M.D. Al-Bdour, T.A. Odat, and A.A. Tahat Myopia and level of education Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 11 2001 1 5
3. P. Alsbirk Refraction in West Greenland Eskimos Acta Ophthalmol. 57 1979 84 95
4. R.L. Anderson, and S.A. Baumgartner Amblyopia in ptosis Arch. Ophthalmol. 98 1980 1068 1069
5. R.L. Anderson, and S.A. Baumgartner Strabismus in ptosis Arch. Ophthalmol. 98 1980 1062 1067
6. S. Andrist, and R.L. Yoton Visual characteristics of natives in Fiji, South Pacific J. Am. Optom. Assoc. 57 1986 431 434
7. M.R. Angi, M. Clementi, C. Sardei, E. Piattelli, and C. Bisantis Heritability of myopic refractive errors in identical and fraternal twins Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 231 1993 580 585
8. J. Angle, and D.A. Wissmann The epidemiology of myopia Am. J. Epidemiol. 111 1980 220 228
9. G.C. Ashton Nearwork, school achievement and myopia J. Biosocial Sci. 17 1985 223 233
10. G.C. Ashton Segregation analysis of ocular refraction and myopia Hum. Hered. 35 1985 232 239
11. K. Attebo, R.Q. Ivers, and P. Mitchell Refractive errors in an older population the Blue Mountains Eye Study Ophthalmology 106 1999 1066 1072
12. K.G. Au Eong, T.H. Tay, and M.K. Lim Education and myopia in 110,236 young Singaporean males Singapore Med. J. 34 1993 489 492
13. K.G. Au Eong, T.H. Tay, and M.K. Lim Race, culture and myopia in 110,236 young Singaporean males Singapore Med. J. 34 1993 29 32
14. A. Av-Shalom, D. Berson, M. Blumenthal, G.M. Gombos, L. Landau, and H. Zauberman Prevalence of myopia in Africans. Survey in Monrovia and Dar es Salaam Am. J. Ophthalmol. 63 1967 1728 1731
15. T. Ayed, M. Sokkah, O. Charfi, and L. El Matri Epidemiologic study of refractive errors in schoolchildren in socioeconomically deprived regions in Tunisia J. Fr. Ophtalmol. 25 2002 712 717
16. M. Bamshad, T. Kivisild, W.S. Watkins, M.E. Dixon, C.E. Ricker, B.B. Rao, J.M. Naidu, B.V. Prasad, P.G. Reddy, A. Rasanayagam, S.S. Papiha, R. Villems, A.J. Redd, M.F. Hammer, S.V. Nguyen, M.L. Carroll, M.A. Batzer, and L.B. Jorde Genetic evidence on the origins of Indian caste populations Genome Res. 11 2001 994 1004
17. A. Basu, N. Mukherjee, S. Roy, S. Sengupta, S. Banerjee, M. Chakraborty, B. Dey, M. Roy, B. Roy, N.P. Bhattacharyya, S. Roychoudhury, and P.P. Majumder Ethnic India a genomic view, with special reference to peopling and structure Genome Res. 13 2003 2277 2290
18. N.T. Bech-Hansen, M.J. Naylor, T.A. Maybaum, W.G. Pearce, B. Koop, G.A. Fishman, M. Mets, M.A. Musarella, and K.M. Boycott Loss-of-function mutations in a calcium-channel alpha1-subunit gene in Xp11.23 cause incomplete X-linked congenital stationary night blindness Nat. Genet. 19 1998 264 267
19. D.M. Behar, D. Garrigan, M.E. Kaplan, Z. Mobasher, D. Rosengarten, T.M. Karafet, L. Quintana-Murci, H. Ostrer, K. Skorecki, and M.F. Hammer Contrasting patterns of Y chromosome variation in Ashkenazi Jweish and non-Jewish European populations Hum. Genet. 114 2004 354 365
20. D. Berson, E. Jedwab, and E.B. Stollman Incidence of myopia among theological and high school students in Jerusalem Harefuah 102 1982 16 17
21. A. Biggin, K. Holman, M. Brett, B. Bennetts, and L. Ades Detection of thirty novel FBN1 mutations in patients with Marfan syndrome or a related fibrillinopathy Hum. Mutat. 23 2004 99
22. H.L. Blum, H.B. Peters, and J.W. Bettman Vision Screening for Elementary Schools 1959 University of California Press Los Angeles
23. V. Boniuk Refractive problems in native peoples (the Sioux Lookout Project) Can. J. Ophthalmol. 8 1973 229 233
24. D. Boomsma, A. Busjahn, and L. Peltonen Classical twin studies and beyond Nat. Rev. Genet. 3 2002 872 882
25. M.C. Bortolini, F.M. Salzano, M.G. Thomas, S. Stuart, S.P. Nasanen, C.H. Bau, M.H. Hutz, Z. Layrisse, M.L. Petzl-Erler, L.T. Tsuneto, K. Hill, A.M. Hurtado, D. Castro-de-Guerra, M.M. Torres, H. Groot, R. Michalski, P. Nymadawa, G. Bedoya, N. Bradman, D. Labuda, and A. Ruiz-Linares Y-chromosome evidence for differing ancient demographic histories in the Americas Am. J. Hum. Genet. 73 2003 524 539
26. K.M. Boycott, T.A. Maybaum, M.J. Naylor, R.G. Weleber, J. Robitaille, Y. Miyake, A.A. Bergen, M.E. Pierpont, W.G. Pearce, and N.T. Bech-Hansen A summary of 20 CACNA1F mutations identified in 36 families with incomplete X-linked congenital stationary night blindness, and characterization of splice variants Hum. Genet. 108 2001 91 97
27. A. Brega, R. Gardella, O. Semino, G. Morpurgo, G.B. Astaldi Ricotti, D.C. Wallace, and A.S. Santachiara Benerecetti Genetic studies on the Tharu population of Nepal restriction endonuclease polymorphisms of mitochondrial DNA Am. J. Hum. Genet. 39 1986 502 512
28. H.G. Brunner, S.E. van Beersum, M.L. Warman, B.R. Olsen, H.H. Ropers, and E.C. Mariman A Stickler syndrome gene is linked to chromosome 6 near the COL11A2 gene Hum. Mol. Genet. 3 1994 1561 1564
29. D. Carmelli, and L.L. Cavalli-Sforza The genetic origin of the Jews a multivariate approach Hum. Biol. 51 1979 41 61
30. L.L. Cavalli-Sforza, and M.W. Feldman The application of molecular genetic approaches to the study of human evolution Nat. Genet. 33 Suppl. 2003 266 275
31. L.L. Cavalli-Sforza, P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza The History and Geography of Human Genes 1994 Princeton University Press Princeton, NJ
32. O.Y. Chan, and M.H. Edwards Refractive errors in Hong Kong Chinese pre-school children Optom. Vis. Sci. 70 1993 501 505
33. S.H.C. Chang, Y.F. Shih, and L.L. Lin A review of myopia studies in Taiwan Trans. Ophthalmol. Soc. Rep. China 38 1999 317 327
34. M. Chapell, B. Sullivan, S. Saridakis, L. Costello, N. Mazgajiewski, J. McGinley, J. McGlone, C. Andris, and A. Pasquarella Myopia and night-time lighting during sleep in children and adults Percept. Mot. Skills 92 2001 640 642
35. C.J. Chen, B.H. Cohen, and E.L. Diamond Genetic and environmental effects on the development of myopia in Chinese twin children Ophthalmic Paediatr. Genet. 6 1985 353 359
36. C.Y. Cheng, W.M. Hsu, J.H. Liu, S.Y. Tsai, and P. Chou Refractive errors in an elderly Chinese population in Taiwan the Shihpai Eye Study Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44 2003 4630 4638
37. Cheng, 2002 D. Prevalence of myopia in Chinese-Canadian children. Abstracts of the Ninth International Conference on Myopia, Hong Kong/Guangzhou, p. 22.
38. S.J. Chew, and R. Ritch Parental history and myopia taking the long view J. Am. Med. Assoc. 272 1994 1255 author reply 1256
39. S.J. Chew, S.C. Chia, and L. Lee Pattern of myopia in young Singapore men Singapore Med. J. 29 1988 201 211
40. Y.C. Chow, B. Dhillon, P.T. Chew, and S.J. Chew Refractive errors in Singapore medical students Singapore Med. J. 31 1990 472 473
41. Chua, W.H., Saw, S.M., Wu, H.M., Hong, C.Y., Chan, W.Y., Wong, A., Chia, K.S., Tan, D., 2000. Refractive errors in schoolchildren: The Singapore Myopia Cohort Study. In: Thorn, F., Troilo, D., Gwiazda, J. (Eds.), Myopia 2000. Proceedings of the VIII International Conference on Myopia. Conference on Myopia 2000 Inc, Boston.
42. H. Cohn Hygiene of the Eye 1886 Simkin Marshall, London
43. S.J. Cohn, C.M. Cohn, and A.R. Jensen Myopia and intelligence a pleiotropic relationship? Hum. Genet. 80 1988 53 58
44. L. Cordain, S.B. Eaton, J. Brand Miller, S. Lindeberg, and C. Jensen An evolutionary analysis of the aetiology and pathogenesis of juvenile- onset myopia Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 80 2002 125 135
45. B.J. Curtin The Myopias. Basic Science and Clinical Management 1985 Harper & Row Philadelphia
46. R. Dandona, L. Dandona, T.J. Naduvilath, M. Srinivas, C.A. McCarty, and G.N. Rao Refractive errors in an urban population in Southern India the Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40 1999 2810 2818
47. R. Dandona, L. Dandona, M. Srinivas, P. Giridhar, C.A. McCarty, and G.N. Rao Population-based assessment of refractive error in India the Andhra Pradesh eye disease study Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 30 2002 84 93
48. R. Dandona, L. Dandona, M. Srinivas, P. Sahare, S. Narsaiah, S.R. Munoz, G.P. Pokharel, and L.B. Ellwein Refractive error in children in a rural population in India Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 2002 615 622
49. W.T. Dickens, and J.R. Flynn Heritability estimates versus large environmental effects The IQ paradox resolved Psychol. Rev. 108 2001 346 369
50. H.C. Dietz, G.R. Cutting, R.E. Pyeritz, C.L. Maslen, L.Y. Sakai, G.M. Corson, E.G. Puffenberger, A. Hamosh, E.J. Nanthakumar, and S.M. Curristin Marfan syndrome caused by a recurrent de novo missense mutation in the fibrillin gene Nature 352 1991 337 339
51. Y.C. Ding, S. Wooding, H.C. Harpending, H.C. Chi, H.P. Li, Y.X. Fu, J.F. Pang, Y.G. Yao, J.G. Yu, R. Moyzis, and Y. Zhang Population structure and history in East Asia Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97 2000 14003 14006
52. D.A. Duke-Elder Duke-Elder's Practice of Refraction 1978 Churchill Livingstone Edinburgh
53. M.H. Edwards The refractive status of Hong Kong Chinese infants Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 11 1991 297 303
54. M.H. Edwards The development of myopia in Hong Kong children between the ages of 7 and 12 years a five-year longitudinal study Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 19 1999 286 294
55. M.H. Edwards, and C.S. Lam The epidemiology of myopia in Hong Kong Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 33 2004 34 38
56. M.H. Edwards, R.W. Li, C.S. Lam, J.K. Lew, and B.S. Yu The Hong Kong progressive lens myopia control study study design and main findings Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 2002 2852 2858
57. L. Faivre, H. Dollfus, S. Lyonnet, Y. Alembik, A. Megarbane, J. Samples, R.J. Gorlin, A. Alswaid, J. Feingold, M. Le Merrer, A. Munnich, and V. Cormier-Daire Clinical homogeneity and genetic heterogeneity in Weill-Marchesani syndrome Am. J. Med. Genet. 123A 2003 204 207
58. L. Faivre, R.J. Gorlin, M.K. Wirtz, M. Godfrey, N. Dagoneau, J.R. Samples, M. Le Merrer, G. Collod-Beroud, C. Boileau, A. Munnich, and V. Cormier-Daire In frame fibrillin-1 gene deletion in autosomal dominant Weill-Marchesani syndrome J. Med. Genet. 40 2003 34 36
59. M. Feldkamper, and F. Schaeffel Interactions of genes and environment in myopia Dev. Ophthalmol. 37 2003 34 49
60. H.C. Fledelius Myopia profile in Copenhagen medical students 1996-1998. Refractive stability over a century is suggested Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 78 2000 501 505
61. J.R. Flynn Searching for justice the discovery of IQ gains over time Am. Psychol. 54 1999 5 20
62. Framingham Offspring Eye Study Group Familial aggregation and prevalence of myopia in the Framingham Offspring Eye Study Arch. Ophthalmol. 114 1996 326 332
63. D.R. Fredrick Myopia Br. Med. J. 324 2002 1195 1199
64. G.W. Fulk, L.A. Cyert, and D.A. Parker Seasonal variation in myopia progression and ocular elongation Optom. Vis. Sci. 79 2002 46 51
65. A.B. Fulton, V. Dobson, D. Salem, C. Mar, R.A. Petersen, and R.M. Hansen Cycloplegic refractions in infants and young children Am. J. Ophthalmol. 90 1980 239 247
66. L.F. Garner, R.F. Kinnear, J.D. Klinger, and M.J. McKellar Prevalence of myopia in school children in Vanuatu Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh) 63 1985 323 326
67. L.F. Garner, R.F. Kinnear, M. McKellar, J. Klinger, M.S. Hovander, and T. Grosvenor Refraction and its components in Melanesian schoolchildren in Vanuatu Am. J. Optom. Physiol. Opt. 65 1988 182 189
68. L.F. Garner, C.K. Meng, T.P. Grosvenor, and N. Mohidin Ocular dimensions and refractive power in Malay and Melanesian children Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 10 1990 234 238
69. L.F. Garner, H. Owens, R.F. Kinnear, and M.J. Frith Prevalence of myopia in Sherpa and Tibetan children in Nepal Optom. Vis. Sci. 76 1999 282 285
70. L.F. Garner, A.W. Stewart, R.F. Kinnear, and M.J. Frith The Nepal longitudinal study predicting myopia from the rate of increase in vitreous chamber depth Optom. Vis. Sci. 81 2004 44 48
71. I. Gawdat Studies on the incidence of refractive errors in Egypt Bull. Ophthalmol. Soc. Egypt 69 1976 513 520
72. S.S. Gee, and K.F. Tabbara Increase in ocular axial length in patients with corneal opacification Ophthalmology 95 1988 1276 1278
73. W.S. Goh, and C.S. Lam Changes in refractive trends and optical components of Hong Kong Chinese aged 19-39 years Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 14 1994 378 382
74. Goldschmidt, E., 1968. On the etiology of myopia. An epidemiological study. Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh): (Suppl 98):1.
75. E. Goldschmidt The importance of heredity and environment in the etiology of low myopia Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh) 59 1981 759 762
76. E. Goldschmidt The mystery of myopia Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 81 2003 431 436
77. E. Goldschmidt, C.S. Lam, and S. Opper The development of myopia in Hong Kong children Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 79 2001 228 232
78. D.A. Goss, and B.B. Rainey Relation of childhood myopia progression rates to time of year J. Am. Optom. Assoc. 69 1998 262 266
79. D.A. Goss, M.J. Hampton, and M.G. Wickham Selected review on genetic factors in myopia J. Am. Optom. Assoc. 59 1988 875 884
80. L.D. Green, J.N. Derr, and A. Knight mtDNA affinities of the peoples of North-Central Mexico Am. J. Hum. Genet. 66 2000 989 998
81. A. Grignolo, and A. Rivara Biometric observations on the eyes of infants born at full-term and of premature infants during their first year Ann. Ocul. 201 1968 817 826
82. T. Grosvenor The visual status of New Zealand's Maoris; a preliminary report Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 42 1965 593 605
83. Grosvenor, T., 1966. Causes of blindness in New Zealand's Maoris and European children. Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom.
84. T. Grosvenor Refractive state, intelligence test scores, and academic ability Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 47 1970 355 361
85. T. Grosvenor, and D.A. Goss The role of bifocal and contact lenses in myopia control Acta Ophthalmol. 185 Suppl. 1988 162 166
86. J.A. Guggenheim, G. Kirov, and S.A. Hodson The heritability of high myopia a reanalysis of Goldschmidt's data J. Med. Genet. 37 2000 227 231
87. M. Guzowski, J.J. Wang, E. Rochtchina, K.A. Rose, and P. Mitchell Five-year refractive changes in an older population the Blue Mountains Eye Study Ophthalmology 110 2003 1364 1370
88. J. Gwiazda, F. Thorn, J. Bauer, and R. Held Emmetropization and the progression of manifest refraction in children followed from infancy to puberty Clin. Vis. Sci. 8 1993 337 344
89. J. Gwiazda, K. Grice, and F. Thorn Response AC/A ratios are elevated in myopic children Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 19 1999 173 179
90. J. Gwiazda, L. Hyman, M. Hussein, D. Everett, T.T. Norton, D. Kurtz, M.C. Leske, R. Manny, W. Marsh-Tootle, and M. Scheiman A randomized clinical trial of progressive addition lenses versus single vision lenses on the progression of myopia in children Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44 2003 1492 1500
91. C.J. Hammond, H. Snieder, C.E. Gilbert, and T.D. Spector Genes and environment in refractive error the twin eye study Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42 2001 1232 1236
92. P. Hammond, T. Andrew, Y. Tak Mat, and T.D. Spector A susceptibility locus for myopia in the normal population is linked to the PAX6 gene region on chromosome 11 a genome wide scan of dizygotic twins Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75 2004 294 304
93. C. Hansen, T. Kristiansen, and T. Christoffersen High prevalence of myopia among medical students? Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh) 71 1993 429
94. S.B. Harrap, M. Stebbing, J.L. Hopper, H.N. Hoang, and G.G. Giles Familial patterns of covariation for cardiovascular risk factors in adults The Victorian Family Heart Study Am. J. Epidemiol. 152 2000 704 715
95. M. He, J. Zeng, Y. Liu, J. Xu, G.P. Pokharel, and L.B. Ellwein Refractive error and visual impairment in urban children in southern china Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45 2004 793 799
96. A.C. Heath, K. Berg, I.J. Eaves, M.H. Solaas, L.A. Corey, J. Sundet, P. Magnus, and W.E. Nance Education policy and the heritability of educational attainment Nature 314 1985 734 736
97. J. Hegmann, A. Mash, and B. Spivey Genetic analysis of human visual parameters in populations with varying incidences of strabismus Am. J. Hum. Genet. 26 1974 549 562
98. M. Henneberg Evolution of the human brain is bigger better? Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 25 1998 745 749
99. M.J. Hirsch The relationship between refractive state of the eye and intelligence test scores Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 36 1959 12 21
100. J.L. Hopper The epidemiology of genetic epidemiology Acta Genet. Med. Gemellol. (Roma) 41 1992 261 273
101. J.L. Hopper Variance components for statistical genetics applications in medical research to characteristics related to human diseases and health Stat. Methods Med. Res. 2 1993 199 223
102. J.L. Hopper Why "common environment effects" are so uncommon in the literature T.D. Spector H. Snieder A.J. MacGregor Advances in Twin and Sib-pair Analysis 2000 Greenwich Medical Media London 152 163
103. C.S. Hoyt, R.D. Stone, C. Fromer, and F.A. Billson Monocular axial myopia associated with neonatal eyelid closure in human infants Am. J. Ophthalmol. 91 1981 197 200
104. D.N. Hu Twin study on myopia Chin. Med. J. (England) 94 1981 51 55
105. D.N. Hu Studies of genetic and environmental factors in the occurrence of myopia based on epidemiological data T. Tokoro Myopia Updates 1998 Springer Tokyo
106. S.W. Hyams, E. Pokotilo, and G. Shkurko Prevalence of refractive errors in adults over 40 a survey of 8102 eyes Br. J. Ophthalmol. 61 1977 428 432
107. G. Ibay, B. Doan, L. Reider, D. Dana, M. Schlifka, H. Hu, T. Holmes, J. O'Neill, R. Owens, E. Ciner, J. Bailey-Wilson, and D. Stambolian Candidate high myopia loci on chromosomes 18p and 12q do not play a major role in susceptibility to common myopia BMC Med. Genet. 5 2004 20
108. E.L. Irving, M.G. Callender, and J.G. Sivak Inducing myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism in chicks Optom. Vis. Sci. 68 1991 364 368
109. E.L. Irving, J.G. Sivak, and M.G. Callender Refractive plasticity of the developing chick eye Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 12 1992 448 456
110. E.L. Irving, M.G. Callender, and J.G. Sivak Inducing ametropias in hatchling chicks by defocus - aperture effects and cylindrical lenses Vis. Res. 35 1995 1165 1174
111. G. Jancke, and A. Holste Der Einfluss von Erblichkeit und Umwelt auf die Refraktionsentstehung, eine Zwillingstudie Klin. Monatsbl. Augenheidk. 107 1941 373
112. A.R. Jensen Educability and Group Differences 1973 Harper & Row New York
113. A.R. Jensen Educational Differences 1973 Methuen London
114. Jensen, H., 1991. Myopia progression in young school children. A prospective study of myopia progression and the effect of a trial with bifocal lenses and beta blocker eye drops. Acta Ophthalmol. (Suppl.) 1-79.
115. G.J. Johnson, A. Matthhews, and E. Perkins Survey of ophthalmic conditions in a Labrador community. I. Refractive errors Br. J. Ophthalmol. 63 1979 440 448
116. N. Juel-Nielsen Individual and environment. A psychiatric-psychological investigation of monozygotic twin reared apart Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 40 Suppl. 1964 183
117. B. Junghans, P.M. Kiely, D.P. Crewther, and S.G. Crewther Referral rates for a functional vision screening among a large cosmopolitan sample of Australian children Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 22 2002 10 25
118. B.M. Junghans, and S.G. Crewther Prevalence of myopia among primary school children in eastern Sydney Clin. Exp. Optom. 86 2003 339 345
119. L.J. Kamin The Science and Politics of IQ 1974 Lawrence Erlbaum Potomac
120. S. Kamiya, M. Saishin, H. Uosato, T. Asai, K. Nomura, and A. Saito Up-to-date analysis of school myopia. Part 2 - comparison of refractive frequency distribution curve of pupils assessed between 1938 and 1984 using auto-refractometer and a new mathematical method of statistical analysis Folia Ophthalmol. Jpn. 36 1985 1127 1144
121. T. Karafet, L. Xu, R. Du, W. Wang, S. Feng, R.S. Wells, A.J. Redd, S.L. Zegura, and M.F. Hammer Paternal population history of East Asia sources, patterns, and microevolutionary processes Am. J. Hum. Genet. 69 2001 615 628
122. J.L. Karlsson Genetic relationship between giftedness and myopia Hereditas 73 1973 85 88
123. J.L. Karlsson Influence of the myopia gene on brain development Clin. Genet. 8 1975 314 318
124. J. Katz, J.M. Tielsch, and A. Sommer Prevalence and risk factors for refractive errors in an adult inner city population Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 38 1997 334 340
125. M. Kawuma, and R. Mayeku A survey of the prevalence of refractive errors among children in lower primary schools in Kampala district Afr. Health Sci. 2 2002 69 72
126. C.S. Kee, D. Marzani, and J. Wallman Differences in time course and visual requirements of ocular responses to lenses and diffusers Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42 2001 575 583
127. J. Keller A comparison of the refractive status of myopic children and their parents Am. J. Optom. 50 1973 206 211
128. J.H. Kempen, P. Mitchell, K.E. Lee, J.M. Tielsch, A.T. Broman, H.R. Taylor, M.K. Ikram, N.G. Congdon, B.J. O'Colmain, and D.S. Friedman Eye Diseases Prevalence Group, The prevalence of refractive errors in older persons Arch. Ophthalmol. 122 2004 495 505
129. T. Kimura Developmental change of the optical compnents in twins Acta Soc. Ophthalmol. Jpn. 69 1965 963 969
130. B. Kinge, and A. Midelfart Refractive errors among engineering students in Norway Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 1 1994 5 13
131. B. Kinge, and A. Midelfart Refractive changes among Norwegian university students - a three-year longitudinal study Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 77 1999 302 305
132. B. Kinge, A. Midelfart, and G. Jacobsen Refractive errors among young adults and university students in Norway Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 76 1998 692 695
133. B. Kinge, A. Midelfart, G. Jacobsen, and J. Rystad Biometric changes in the eyes of Norwegian university students - a three-year longitudinal study Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 77 1999 648 652
134. B. Kinge, A. Midelfart, G. Jacobsen, and J. Rystad The influence of near-work on development of myopia among university students. A three-year longitudinal study among engineering students in Norway Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 78 2000 26 29
135. R.N. Kleinstein, L.A. Jones, S. Hullett, S. Kwon, R.J. Lee, N.E. Friedman, R.E. Manny, D.O. Mutti, J.A. Yu, and K. Zadnik Refractive error and ethnicity in children Arch. Ophthalmol. 121 2003 1141 1147
136. R.G. Knowlton, E.J. Weaver, A.F. Struyk, W.H. Knobloch, R.A. King, K. Norris, A. Shamban, J. Uitto, S.A. Jimenez, and D.J. Prockop Genetic linkage analysis of hereditary arthro-ophthalmopathy (Stickler syndrome) and the type II procollagen gene Am. J. Hum. Genet. 45 1989 681 688
137. L. Laatikainen, and H. Erkkila Refractive errors and other ocular findings in school children Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh) 58 1980 129 136
138. C.S. Lam, and W.S. Goh The incidence of myopic refractive errors among schoolchildren in Hong Kong and its relationship with the optical components Clin. Exp. Optom. 74 1991 97 103
139. C.S. Lam, W.S. Goh, Y.K. Tang, K.K. Tsui, W.C. Wong, and T.C. Man Changes in refractive trends and optical components of Hong Kong Chinese aged over 40 years Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 14 1994 383 388
140. C.S. Lam, E. Goldschmidt, and M.H. Edwards Prevalence of myopia in local and international schools in Hong Kong Optom. Vis. Sci. 81 2004 317 322
141. D.S. Lam, W.S. Lee, Y.F. Leung, P.O. Tam, D.S. Fan, B.J. Fan, and C.P. Pang TGFbeta-induced factor a candidate gene for high myopia Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44 2003 1012 1015
142. D.S. Lam, P.O. Tam, D.S. Fan, L. Baum, Y.F. Leung, and C.P. Pang Familial high myopia linkage to chromosome 18p Ophthalmologica 217 2003 115 118
143. K.E. Lee, B.E. Klein, and R. Klein Changes in refractive error over a 5-year interval in the Beaver Dam Eye Study Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40 1999 1645 1649
144. K.E. Lee, B.E. Klein, R. Klein, and J.P. Fine Aggregation of refractive error and 5-year changes in refractive error among families in the Beaver Dam Eye Study Arch. Ophthalmol. 119 2001 1679 1685
145. K.E. Lee, B.E. Klein, R. Klein, and T.Y. Wong Changes in refraction over 10 years in an adult population the Beaver Dam Eye study Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 2002 2566 2571
146. Y.F. Leung, P.O. Tam, L. Baum, D.S. Lam, and C.C. Pang TIGR/MYOC proximal promoter GT-repeat polymorphism is not associated with myopia Hum. Mutat. 16 2000 533
147. S. Lewallen, R. Lowdon, P. Courtright, and G.L. Mehl A population-based survey of the prevalence of refractive error in Malawi Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2 1995 145 149
148. T. Li, D. Troilo, A. Glasser, and H.C. Howland Constant light produces severe corneal flattening and hyperopia in chickens Vis. Res. 35 1995 1203 1209
149. T. Li, H.C. Howland, and D. Troilo Diurnal illumination patterns affect the development of the chick eye Vis. Res. 40 2000 2387 2393
150. L.L. Lin, and C.J. Chen Twin study on myopia Acta Genet. Med. Gemellol. (Roma) 36 1987 535 540
151. L.L. Lin, C.J. Chen, P.T. Hung, and L.S. Ko Nation-wide survey of myopia among schoolchildren in Taiwan, 1986 Acta Ophthalmol. 185 Suppl. 1988 29 33
152. L.L. Lin, P.T. Hung, L.S. Ko, and P.K. Hou Study of myopia among aboriginal school children in Taiwan Acta Ophthalmol. 185 Suppl. 1988 34 36
153. L.L. Lin, Y.F. Shih, Y.C. Lee, P.T. Hung, and P.K. Hou Changes in ocular refraction and its components among medical students - a 5-year longitudinal study Optom. Vis. Sci. 73 1996 495 498
154. L.L. Lin, Y.F. Shih, C.B. Tsai, C.J. Chen, L.A. Lee, P.T. Hung, and P.K. Hou Epidemiologic study of ocular refraction among schoolchildren in Taiwan in 1995 Optom. Vis. Sci. 76 1999 275 281
155. L.L. Lin, Y.F. Shih, C.K. Hsiao, C.J. Chen, L.A. Lee, and P.T. Hung Epidemiologic study of the prevalence and severity of myopia among schoolchildren in Taiwan in 2000 J. Formos. Med. Assoc. 100 2001 684 691
156. L.L. Lin, Y.F. Shih, C.K. Hsiao, and C.J. Chen Prevalence of myopia in Taiwanese schoolchildren 1983-2000 Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 33 2004 27 33
157. J. Lithander Prevalence of myopia in school children in the Sultanate of Oman a nation-wide study of 6292 randomly selected children Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 77 1999 306 309
158. G. Livshits, R.R. Sokal, and E. Kobyliansky Genetic affinities of Jewish populations Am. J. Hum. Genet. 49 1991 131 146
159. J. Loman, G.E. Quinn, L. Kamoun, G.S. Ying, M.G. Maguire, D. Hudesman, and R.A. Stone Darkness and near work myopia and its progression in third-year law students Ophthalmology 109 2002 1032 1038
160. N. Lyhne, A.K. Sjolie, K.O. Kyvik, and A. Green The importance of genes and environment for ocular refraction and its determiners a population based study among 20-45 year old twins Br. J. Ophthalmol. 85 2001 1470 1476
161. D.J. MacFarlane, W. Fitzgerald, and D.J. Stark The prevalence of ocular disorders in 1000 Queensland primary schoolchildren Aust. N. Z. J. Ophthalmol. 15 1987 161 174
162. M. Mantyjarvi Incidence of myopia in a population of Finnish school children Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh) 61 1983 417 423
163. H. Matsumura, and H. Hirai Prevalence of myopia and refractive changes in students from 3 to 17 years of age Surv. Ophthalmol. 44 Suppl 1 1999 S109 S115
164. E. Maul, S. Barroso, S.R. Munoz, R.D. Sperduto, and L.B. Ellwein Refractive Error Study in Children results from La Florida, Chile Am. J. Ophthalmol. 129 2000 445 454
165. D.L. Mayer, R.M. Hansen, B.D. Moore, S. Kim, and A.B. Fulton Cycloplegic refractions in healthy children aged 1 through 48 months Arch. Ophthalmol. 19 2001 1625 1628
166. N.A. McBrien, and A. Gentle Role of the sclera in the development and pathological complications of myopia Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 22 2003 307 338
167. N.A. McBrien, and M. Millodot The relationship between tonic accommodation and refractive error Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 28 1987 997 1004
168. N.A. McBrien, H.O. Moghaddam, R. New, and L.R. Williams Experimental myopia in a diurnal mammal (Sciurus carolinensis) with no accommodative ability J. Physiol. 469 1993 427 441
169. N.A. McBrien, H.O. Moghaddam, C.L. Cottriall, E.M. Leech, and L.M. Cornell The effects of blockade of retinal cell action potentials on ocular growth, emmetropization and form deprivation myopia in young chicks Vis. Res. 35 1995 1141 1152
170. C.A. McCarty, and H.R. Taylor Myopia and vision 2020 Am. J. Ophthalmol. 129 2000 525 527
171. O. Menzel, R.C. Bekkeheien, A. Reymond, N. Fukai, E. Boye, G. Kosztolanyi, S. Aftimos, S. Deutsch, H.S. Scott, B.R. Olsen, S.E. Antonarakis, and M. Guipponi Knobloch syndrome novel mutations in COL18A1, evidence for genetic heterogeneity, and a functionally impaired polymorphism in endostatin Hum. Mutat. 23 2004 77 84
172. A. Midelfart, B. Aamo, K.A. Sjohaug, and B.E. Dysthe Myopia among medical students in Norway Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh) 70 1992 317 322
173. A. Midelfart, B. Kinge, S. Midelfart, and S. Lydersen Prevalence of refractive errors in young and middle-aged adults in Norway Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 80 2002 501 505
174. E.M. Miller On the correlation of myopia and intelligence Genet. Soc. Gen. Psychol. Monogr. 118 1992 361 383
175. P. Miller, C. Mulvey, and N. Martin Genetic and environmental contributions to educational attainment in Australia Econ. Educ. Rev. 20 2001 211 224
176. I.G. Morgan The biological basis of myopic refractive error Clin. Exp. Optom. 86 2003 276 288
177. I.G. Morgan, and P. Megaw Using natural STOP growth signals to prevent excessive axial elongation and the development of myopia Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 33 2004 16 20
178. R.W. Morgan, J.S. Speakman, and S.E. Grimshaw Inuit myopia an environmentally induced "epidemic"? Can. Med. Assoc. J. 112 1975 575 577
179. G.V. Murthy, S.K. Gupta, L.B. Ellwein, S.R. Munoz, G.P. Pokharel, L. Sanga, and D. Bachani Refractive error in children in an urban population in New Delhi Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 2002 623 631
180. D.O. Mutti, and K. Zadnik The utility of three predictors of childhood myopia a Bayesian analysis Vis. Res. 35 1995 1345 1352
181. D.O. Mutti, and K. Zadnik Age-related decreases in the prevalence of myopia longitudinal change or cohort effect? Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2000 2103 2107
182. D.O. Mutti, L.A. Jones, M.L. Moeschberger, and K. Zadnik AC/A ratio, age, and refractive error in children Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41 2000 2469 2478
183. D.O. Mutti, G.L. Mitchell, M.L. Moeschberger, L.A. Jones, and K. Zadnik Parental myopia, near work, school achievement, and children's refractive error Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 2002 3633 3640
184. D.O. Mutti, E. Semina, M. Marazita, M. Cooper, J.C. Murray, and K. Zadnik Genetic loci for pathological myopia are not associated with juvenile myopia Am. J. Med. Genet. 112 2002 355 360
185. K.S. Naidoo, A. Raghunandan, K.P. Mashige, P. Govender, B.A. Holden, G.P. Pokharel, and L.B. Ellwein Refractive error and visual impairment in African children in South Africa Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44 2003 3764 3770
186. L. Naiglin, C. Gazagne, F. Dallongeville, C. Thalamas, A. Idder, O. Rascol, F. Malecaze, and P. Calvas A genome wide scan for familial high myopia suggests a novel locus on chromosome 7q36 J. Med. Genet. 39 2002 118 124
187. A. Nakajima Refractive elements of the eye as metric traits Nippon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi 72 1968 2059 2082
188. A. Nakajima, T. Kimura, K. Kitamura, M. Uesugi, and Y. Handa Studies on the heritability of some metric traits of the eye and body Jpn. J. Med. Genet. 13 1968 20 29
189. G.A. Napper, N.A. Brennan, M. Barrington, M.A. Squires, G.A. Vessey, and A.J. Vingrys The duration of normal visual exposure necessary to prevent form deprivation myopia in chicks Vis. Res. 35 1995 1337 1344
190. G.A. Napper, N.A. Brennan, M. Barrington, M.A. Squires, G.A. Vessey, and A.J. Vingrys The effect of an interrupted daily period of normal visual stimulation on form deprivation myopia in chicks Vis. Res. 37 1997 1557 1564
191. U. Neisser, G. Boodoo, T.J. Bouchard, A.W. Boykin, N. Brody, S.J. Ceci, D.F. Halpern, J.C. Loehlin, R. Perloff, R.J. Sternberg, and S. Urbina Intelligence knowns and unknowns Am. Psychol. 51 1966 77 101
192. OECD Knowledge and Skills for Life First Results from PISA 2000 2001 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Paris
193. R. Pacella, J. McLellan, K. Grice, E.A. Del Bono, J.L. Wiggs, and J.E. Gwiazda Role of genetic factors in the etiology of juvenile-onset myopia based on a longitudinal study of refractive error Optom. Vis. Sci. 76 1999 381 386
194. P. Paluru, S.M. Ronan, E. Heon, M. Devoto, S.C. Wildenberg, G. Scavello, A. Holleschau, O. Makitie, W.G. Cole, R.A. King, and T.L. Young New locus for
195. H. Pang, Y. Koda, M. Soejima, N. Fujitani, T. Ogaki, A. Saito, T. Kawasaki, and H. Kimura Polymorphism of the human ABO-Secretor locus (FUT2) in four populations in Asia indication of distinct Asian subpopulations Ann. Hum. Genet. 65 2001 429 437
196. D.J.J. Park, and N.G. Congdon Evidence for an "epidemic" of myopia Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 33 2004 21 26
197. G. Passarino, O. Semino, G. Modiano, and A.S. Santachiara-Benerecetti COII/tRNA(Lys) intergenic 9-bp deletion and other mtDNA markers clearly reveal that the Tharus (southern Nepal) have Oriental affinities Am. J. Hum. Genet. 53 1993 609 618
198. K. Pearson, and M. Moul The problem of alien immigration into Great Britain, illustrated by an examination of Russian and Polish children Ann. Eugen. 3 1928 1
199. G.P. Pokharel, A.D. Negrel, S.R. Munoz, and L.B. Ellwein Refractive Error Study in Children results from Mechi Zone, Nepal Am. J. Ophthalmol. 129 2000 436 444
200. L. Pulkkinen, K. Kainulainen, T. Krusius, P. Makinen, J. Schollin, K.H. Gustavsson, and L. Peltonen Deficient expression of the gene coding for decorin in a lethal form of Marfan syndrome J. Biol. Chem. 265 1990 17780 17785
201. C.M. Pusch, C. Zeitz, O. Brandau, K. Pesch, H. Achatz, S. Feil, C. Scharfe, J. Maurer, F.K. Jacobi, A. Pinckers, S. Andreasson, A. Hardcastle, B. Wissinger, W. Berger, and A. Meindl The complete form of X-linked congenital stationary night blindness is caused by mutations in a gene encoding a leucine-rich repeat protein Nat. Genet. 26 2000 324 327
202. T.P. Quek, C.G. Chua, C.S. Chong, J.H. Chong, H.W. Hey, J. Lee, Y.F. Lim, and S.M. Saw Prevalence of refractive errors in teenage high school students in Singapore Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 24 2004 47 55
203. G.E. Quinn, C.H. Shin, M.G. Maguire, and R.A. Stone Myopia and ambient lighting at night Nature 399 1999 113 114
204. O.D. Rasmussen Incidence of myopia in China Br. J. Ophthalmol. 20 1936 350 360
205. R.M. Robb Refractive errors associated with hemangiomas of the eyelids and orbits in infancy Am. J. Ophthalmol. 83 1977 52 58
206. B.E. Robinson Factors associated with the prevalence of myopia in 6-year-olds Optom. Vis. Sci. 76 1999 266 271
207. K. Rose, W. Smith, I. Morgan, and P. Mitchell The increasing prevalence of myopia implications for Australia Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 29 2001 116 120
208. K. Rose, C. Younan, I. Morgan, and P. Mitchell Prevalence of undetected ocular conditions in a pilot sample of school children Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 31 2003 237 240
209. K.A. Rose, I.G. Morgan, W. Smith, and P. Mitchell High heritability of myopia does not preclude rapid changes in prevalence Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 30 2002 168 172
210. M. Rosner, and M. Belkin Intelligence, education, and myopia in males Arch. Ophthalmol. 105 1987 1508 1511
211. M. Rosner, A. Laor, and M. Belkin Myopia and stature findings in a population of 106,926 males Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 5 1995 1 6
212. M.E. Said, H. Goldstein, A. Korra, and K. El-Kashlan Prevalence and causes of blindness in urban and rural areas of Egypt Public Health Rep. 85 1970 587 599
213. M.E. Said, H. Goldstein, A. Korra, and K. el-Kashlan Visual acuity as related to causes of blindness, age and sex in urban and rural Egyptians Am. J. Public Health 61 1971 2433 2448
214. T. Sato The Causes of Acquired Myopia 1957 Kanahara Shuppan Tokyo
215. S.M. Saw A synopsis of the prevalence rates and environmental risk factors for myopia Clin. Exp. Optom. 86 2003 289 294
216. S.M. Saw, J. Katz, O.D. Schein, S.J. Chew, and T.K. Chan Epidemiology of myopia Epidemiol. Rev. 18 1996 175 187
217. S.M. Saw, F.J. Nieto, J. Katz, O.D. Schein, B. Levy, and S.J. Chew Factors related to the progression of myopia in Singaporean children Optom. Vis. Sci. 77 2000 549 554
218. S.M. Saw, R.Z. Hong, M.Z. Zhang, Z.F. Fu, M. Ye, D. Tan, and S.J. Chew Near-work activity and myopia in rural and urban schoolchildren in China J. Pediatr. Ophthalmol. Strabismus 38 2001 149 155
219. S.M. Saw, F.J. Nieto, J. Katz, O.D. Schein, B. Levy, and S.J. Chew Familial clustering and myopia progression in Singapore school children Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 8 2001 227 236
220. S.M. Saw, W.H. Chua, C.Y. Hong, H.M. Wu, K.S. Chia, R.A. Stone, and D. Tan Height and its relationship to refraction and biometry parameters in Singapore Chinese children Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 2002 1408 1413
221. S.M. Saw, G. Gazzard, D. Koh, M. Farook, D. Widjaja, J. Lee, and D.T. Tan Prevalence rates of refractive errors in Sumatra, Indonesia Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 2002 3174 3180
222. S.M. Saw, M.Z. Zhang, R.Z. Hong, Z.F. Fu, M.H. Pang, and D.T. Tan Near-work activity, night-lights, and myopia in the Singapore-China study Arch. Ophthalmol. 120 2002 620 627
223. S.M. Saw, L. Tong, K.S. Chia, D. Koh, Y.S. Lee, J. Katz, and D.T. Tan The relation between birth size and the results of refractive error and biometry measurements in children Br. J. Ophthalmol. 88 2004 538 542
224. F. Schaeffel, and H.C. Howland Properties of the feedback loops controlling eye growth and refractive state in the chicken Vis. Res. 31 1991 717 734
225. F. Schaeffel, D. Troilo, J. Wallman, and H.C. Howland Developing eyes that lack accommodation grow to compensate for imposed defocus Vis. Neurosci. 4 1990 177 183
226. F. Schaeffel, P. Simon, M. Feldkaemper, S. Ohngemach, and R.W. Williams Molecular biology of myopia Clin. Exp. Optom. 86 2003 295 307
227. K.L. Schmid, and C.F. Wildsoet Effects on the compensatory responses to positive and negative lenses of intermittent lens wear and ciliary nerve section in chicks Vis. Res. 36 1996 1023 1036
228. B. Seet, T.Y. Wong, D.T. Tan, S.M. Saw, V. Balakrishnan, L.K. Lee, and A.S. Lim Myopia in Singapore taking a public health approach Br. J. Ophthalmol. 85 2001 521 526
229. O. Semino, A. Torroni, R. Scozzari, A. Brega, and A.S. Santachiara Benerecetti Mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms among Hindus a comparison with the Tharus of Nepal Ann. Hum. Genet. 55 Pt 2 1991 123 136
230. A.L. Sertie, V. Sossi, A.A. Camargo, M. Zatz, C. Brahe, and M.R. Passos-Bueno Collagen XVIII, containing an endogenous inhibitor of angiogenesis and tumor growth, plays a critical role in the maintenance of retinal structure and in neural tube closure (Knobloch syndrome) Hum. Mol. Genet. 9 2000 2051 2058
231. S.M. Sherman, T.T. Norton, and V.A. Casagrande Myopia in the lid-sutured tree shrew (Tupaia glis) Brain Res. 124 1977 154 157
232. Y.F. Shih, C.K. Hsiao, C.J. Chen, C.W. Chang, P.T. Hung, and L.L. Lin An intervention trial on efficacy of atropine and multi-focal glasses in controlling myopic progression Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 79 2001 233 236
233. N. Shimizu, H. Nomura, F. Ando, N. Niino, Y. Miyake, and H. Shimokata Refractive errors and factors associated with myopia in an adult Japanese population Jpn. J. Ophthalmol. 47 2003 6 12
234. K. Silventoinen Determinants of variation in adult body height J. Biosocial Sci. 35 2003 263 285
235. K. Silventoinen, J. Kaprio, E. Lahelma, and M. Koskenvuo Relative effect of genetic and environmental factors on body height differences across birth cohorts among Finnish men and women Am. J. Public Health 90 2000 627 630
236. F. Slataper Age norms of refraction and vision Arch. Ophthalmol. 43 1950 466 481
237. E.L. Smith 3rd, R.S. Harwerth, M.L. Crawford, and G.K. von Noorden Observations on the effects of form deprivation on the refractive status of the monkey Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 28 1987 1236 1245
238. E.L. Smith 3rd, D.V. Bradley, A. Fernandes, and R.G. Boothe Form deprivation myopia in adolescent monkeys Optom. Vis. Sci. 76 1999 428 432
239. E.L. Smith III, L.F. Hung, C.S. Kee, and Y. Qiao Effects of brief periods of unrestricted vision on the development of form-deprivation myopia in monkeys Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 2002 291 299
240. A. Sorsby School myopia Br. J. Ophthalmol. 16 1932 217
241. A. Sorsby, and F.A. Young Transmission of refractive errors within Eskimo families Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 47 1970 244 249
242. A. Sorsby, G. Leary, and M.J. Richards Correlation ametropia and component ametropia Vis. Res. 2 1962 309
243. Sorsby, A., Sheridan, M., Leary, G., 1962b. Refraction and its components in twins. MRC Report No 303. HMSO, London.
244. A. Sorsby, G. Leary, and G. Fraser Family studies on ocular refraction and its components J. Med. Genet. 3 1966 269 273
245. A. Sourasky Race, sex and environment in the development of myopia (preliminary investigation) Br. J. Ophthalmol. 12 1928 197
246. R.D. Sperduto, D. Seigel, J. Roberts, and M. Rowland Prevalence of myopia in the United States Arch. Ophthalmol. 101 1983 405 407
247. D. Stambolian, G. Ibay, L. Reider, D. Dana, C. Moy, M. Schlifka, T. Holmes, E. Ciner, and J.E. Bailey-Wilson Genomewide linkage scan for myopia susceptibility loci among Ashkenazi Jewish families shows evidence of linkage on chromosome 22q12 Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75 2004 448 459
248. S. Stentstrom Variations and correlations of the optical components of the eye A. Sorsby Modern Trends in Ophthalmology second ed 1947 Hoeber New York 87
249. S. Stephenson A note on the relative frequency of myopia among Christians and Jews Ophthalmic Rev. 11 1892 110
250. R.A. Stone, and D.I. Flitcroft Ocular shape and myopia Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 33 2004 7 15
251. O.T. Suzuki, A.L. Sertie, V.M. Der Kaloustian, F. Kok, M. Carpenter, J. Murray, A.E. Czeizel, S.E. Kliemann, S. Rosemberg, M. Monteiro, B.R. Olsen, and M.R. Passos-Bueno Molecular analysis of collagen XVIII reveals novel mutations, presence of a third isoform, and possible genetic heterogeneity in Knobloch syndrome Am. J. Hum. Genet. 71 2002 1320 1329
252. K. Tambs, J.M. Sundet, P. Magnus, and K. Berg Genetic and environmental contributions to the covariance between occupational status, educational attainment and IQ Behav. Genet. 19 1989 209 222
253. N.W. Tan, S.M. Saw, D.S. Lam, H.M. Cheng, U. Rajan, and S.J. Chew Temporal variations in myopia progression in Singaporean children within an academic year Optom. Vis. Sci. 77 2000 465 472
254. M.T. Tay, K.G. Au Eong, C.Y. Ng, and M.K. Lim Myopia and educational attainment in 421,116 young Singaporean males Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 21 1992 785 791
255. H.R. Taylor Racial variations in vision Am. J. Epidemiol. 113 1981 62 80
256. H.R. Taylor, T.A. Robin, V.C. Lansingh, L.M. Weih, and J.E. Keeffe Myopic shift in Australian Aborigines Trans. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc. 101 2003 107 110
257. T.W. Teasdale, and E. Goldschmidt Myopia and its relationship to education, intelligence and height Preliminary results from an on-going study of Danish draftees. Acta Ophthalmol. 185 Suppl. 1988 41 43
258. T.W. Teasdale, J. Fuchs, and E. Goldschmidt Degree of myopia in relation to intelligence and educational level Lancet 2 1988 1351 1354
259. J.M. Teikari, J. O'Donnell, J. Kaprio, and M. Koskenvuo Impact of heredity in myopia Hum. Hered. 41 1991 151 156
260. A.S. Tenner Refraction in school children 4800 refractions tabulated according to age, sex and nationality N. Y. Med. J. 102 1915 611
261. G.E. Tiller, P.A. Polumbo, and M.L. Summar Linkage mapping of the gene for type III collagen (COL3A1) to human chromosome 2q using a VNTR polymorphism Genomics 20 1994 275 277
262. M.J. Tramo, W.C. Loftus, T.A. Stukel, R.L. Green, J.B. Weaver, and M.S. Gazzaniga Brain size, head size, and intelligence quotient in monozygotic twins Neurology 50 1998 1246 1252
263. E. Tron The optical elements of the refractive power of the eye F. Ridley A. Sorsby Modern Trends of Ophthalmology 1940 Butterworth London
264. M. Tscherning Studier over Myopiens Aetiologi 1882 C Myres Boghandel Copenhagen
265. S. Umemura, T. Kawasaki, T. Ishigami, T. Fujita, K. Hibi, M. Kawasaki, K. Itoh, Y. Yoshimizu, T. Ogaki, G.P. Acharya, and M. Ishii Angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism in Nepal J. Hum. Hypertens. 12 1998 527 531
266. G. van Alphen On emmetropia and ametropia Ophthalmologica 142 Suppl. 1961
267. G.H. van Rens, and S.M. Arkell Refractive errors and axial length among Alaskan Eskimos Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh) 69 1991 27 32
268. D.L. Verlee Ophthalmic survey in the Solomon Islands Am. J. Ophthalmol. 66 1968 304 319
269. G.M. Villarreal, J. Ohlsson, H. Cavazos, M. Abrahamsson, and J.H. Mohamed Prevalence of myopia among 12- to 13-year-old schoolchildren in northern Mexico Optom. Vis. Sci. 80 2003 369 373
270. M.G. Villarreal, J. Ohlsson, M. Abrahamsson, A. Sjostrom, and J. Sjostrand Myopisation the refractive tendency in teenagers. Prevalence of myopia among young teenagers in Sweden Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 78 2000 177 181
271. J. Wallman Retinal influences on sclera underlie visual deprivation myopia Ciba Found. Symp. 155 1990 126 134
272. J. Wallman Parental history and myopia taking the long view J. Am. Med. Assoc. 272 1994 1255 1256
273. J. Wallman, M.D. Gottlieb, V. Rajaram, and L.A. Fugate-Wentzek Local retinal regions control local eye growth and myopia Science 237 1987 73 77
274. J. Wallman, J. Turkel, and J. Trachtman Extreme myopia produced by modest change in early visual experience Science 201 1978 1249 1251
275. Wallman, J., Winawer, J.A., Zhu, X., Park, T.W., 2000. Might myopic defocus prevent myopia? In: Thorn, F., Troilo, D., Gwiazda, J. (Eds.), Myopia 2000. Proceedings of the VIII International Conference on Myopia. Conference on Myopia 2000, Boston, pp. 138-142.
276. Q. Wang, B.E. Klein, R. Klein, and S.E. Moss Refractive status in the Beaver Dam Eye Study Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 35 1994 4344 4347
277. J. Ware Aberrations relative to the near and distant sight of different persons Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London 1 1813 31
278. S. Watanabe, T. Yamashita, and N. Ohba A longitudinal study of cycloplegic refraction in a cohort of 350 Japanese schoolchildren. Cycloplegic refraction Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 19 1999 22 29
279. S.H. Wedner, D.A. Ross, J. Todd, A. Anemona, R. Balira, and A. Foster Myopia in secondary school students in Mwanza City, Tanzania the need for a national screening programme Br. J. Ophthalmol. 86 2002 1200 1206
280. M. Wensor, C.A. McCarty, and H.R. Taylor Prevalence and risk factors of myopia in Victoria, Australia Arch. Ophthalmol. 117 1999 658 663
281. S. Wickremasinghe, P.J. Foster, D. Uranchimeg, P.S. Lee, J.G. Devereux, P.H. Alsbirk, D. Machin, G.J. Johnson, and J. Baasanhu Ocular biometry and refraction in Mongolian adults Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45 2004 776 783
282. T.N. Wiesel, and E. Raviola Myopia and eye enlargement after neonatal lid fusion in monkeys Nature 266 1977 66 68
283. C. Wildsoet Neural pathways subserving negative lens-induced emmetropization in chicks - insights from selective lesions of the optic nerve and ciliary nerve Curr. Eye Res. 27 2003 371 385
284. C.F. Wildsoet Active emmetropization - evidence for its existence and ramifications for clinical practice Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 17 1997 279 290
285. S.M. Williams, G.F. Sanderson, D.L. Share, and P.A. Silva Refractive error, IQ and reading ability a longitudinal study from age seven to 11 Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 30 1988 735 742
286. S. Wilson Heritability J. Appl. Prob. 19A 1982 71 85
287. J. Winawer, and J. Wallman Temporal constraints on lens compensation in chicks Vis. Res. 2002
288. L. Wong, D. Coggon, M. Cruddas, and C.H. Hwang Education, reading, and familial tendency as risk factors for myopia in Hong Kong fishermen J. Epidemiol. Community Health 47 1993 50 53
289. T.Y. Wong, P.J. Foster, J. Hee, T.P. Ng, J.M. Tielsch, S.J. Chew, G.J. Johnson, and S.K. Seah Prevalence and risk factors for refractive errors in adult Chinese in Singapore Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41 2000 2486 2494
290. T.Y. Wong, P.J. Foster, G.J. Johnson, B.E. Klein, and S.K. Seah The relationship between ocular dimensions and refraction with adult stature the Tanjong Pagar Survey Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42 2001 1237 1242
291. T.Y. Wong, P.J. Foster, T.P. Ng, J.M. Tielsch, G.J. Johnson, and S.K. Seah Variations in ocular biometry in an adult Chinese population in Singapore the Tanjong Pagar Survey Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42 2001 73 80
292. T.Y. Wong, P.J. Foster, G.J. Johnson, and S.K. Seah Education, socioeconomic status, and ocular dimensions in Chinese adults the Tanjong Pagar Survey Br. J. Ophthalmol. 86 2002 963 968
293. T.Y. Wong, P.J. Foster, G.J. Johnson, and S.K. Seah Refractive errors, axial ocular dimensions, and age-related cataracts the Tanjong Pagar survey Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44 2003 1479 1485
294. M.E. Woodruff, and M.J. Samek The refractive status of Belcher Island Eskimos Can. J. Public Health 67 1976 314 320
295. M.E. Woodruff, and M.J. Samek A study of the prevalence of spherical equivalent refractive states and anisometropia in Amerind populations in Ontario Can. J. Public Health 68 1977 414 424
296. H.M. Wu, B. Seet, E.P. Yap, S.M. Saw, T.H. Lim, and K.S. Chia Does education explain ethnic differences in myopia prevalence? A population-based study of young adult males in Singapore Optom. Vis. Sci. 78 2001 234 239
297. M.M. Wu, and M.H. Edwards The effect of having myopic parents an analysis of myopia in three generations Optom. Vis. Sci. 76 1999 387 392
298. S.Y. Wu, B. Nemesure, and M.C. Leske Refractive errors in a black adult population the Barbados Eye Study Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40 1999 2179 2184
299. X. Wu, R.S. Cooper, E. Boerwinkle, S.T. Turner, S. Hunt, R. Myers, R.A. Olshen, D. Curb, X. Zhu, D. Kan, and A. Luke Combined analysis of genomewide scans for adult height results from the NHLBI Family Blood Pressure Program Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 11 2003 271 274
300. Y.G. Yao, Q.P. Kong, H.J. Bandelt, T. Kivisild, and Y.P. Zhang Phylogeographic differentiation of mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese Am. J. Hum. Genet. 70 2002 635 651
301. P.T. Yeow Progression of myopia in different ethnic groups in Malaysia Med. J. Malays. 49 1994 138 141
302. F. Young, and G. Leary The inheritance of ocular components Am. J. Optom. 49 1972 546 555
303. F.A. Young, G.A. Leary, W.R. Baldwin, D.C. West, R.A. Box, E. Harris, and C. Johnson The transmission of refractive errors within Eskimo families Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 46 1969 676 685
304. F.A. Young, G.A. Leary, and W.R. Baldwin Refractive errors, reading performance, and school achievement among Eskimo children Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 47 1970 384 390
305. F.A. Young, G.A. Leary, R.A. Box, E. Harris, W.R. Baldwin, D.C. West, and C. Johnson Comparison of cycloplegic and non-cycloplegic refractions of Eskimos Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 48 1971 814 825
306. T.L. Young, S.M. Ronan, A.B. Alvear, S.C. Wildenberg, W.S. Oetting, L.D. Atwood, D.J. Wilkin, and R.A. King A second locus for familial high myopia maps to chromosome 12q Am. J. Hum. Genet. 63 1998 1419 1424
307. T.L. Young, S.M. Ronan, L.A. Drahozal, S.C. Wildenberg, A.B. Alvear, W.S. Oetting, L.D. Atwood, D.J. Wilkin, and R.A. King Evidence that a locus for familial high myopia maps to chromosome 18p Am. J. Hum. Genet. 63 1998 109 119
308. T.L. Young, L.D. Atwood, S.M. Ronan, A.T. Dewan, A.B. Alvear, J. Peterson, A. Holleschau, and R.A. King Further refinement of the MYP2 locus for autosomal dominant high myopia by linkage disequilibrium analysis Ophthalmic Genet. 22 2001 69 75
309. K. Zadnik The Glenn A. Fry Award Lecture (1995). Myopia development in childhood Optom. Vis. Sci. 74 1997 603 608
310. K. Zadnik Association between night lights and myopia true blue or a red herring? Arch. Ophthalmol. 119 2001 146
311. K. Zadnik, and D.O. Mutti Refractive error changes in law students Am. J. Optom. Physiol. Opt. 64 1987 558 561
312. K. Zadnik, and D.O. Mutti Prevalence of myopia M. Rosenfield B. Gilmartin Myopia and Nearwork 1998 Butterworth/Heinemann Oxford 13 30
313. K. Zadnik, W.A. Satariano, D.O. Mutti, R.I. Sholtz, and A.J. Adams The effect of parental history of myopia on children's eye size J. Am. Med. Assoc. 271 1994 1323 1327
314. K. Zadnik, R.E. Manny, J.A. Yu, G.L. Mitchell, S.A. Cotter, J.C. Quiralte, M. Shipp, N.E. Friedman, R.N. Kleinstein, T.W. Walker, L.A. Jones, M.L. Moeschberger, and D.O. Mutti Ocular component data in schoolchildren as a function of age and gender Optom. Vis. Sci. 80 2003 226 236
315. M.Z. Zhan, S.M. Saw, R.Z. Hong, Z.F. Fu, H. Yang, Y.B. Shui, M.K. Yap, and S.J. Chew Refractive errors in Singapore and Xiamen, China - a comparative study in school children aged 6 to 7 years Optom. Vis. Sci. 77 2000 302 308
316. J. Zhao, X. Pan, R. Sui, S.R. Munoz, R.D. Sperduto, and L.B. Ellwein Refractive Error Study in Children results from Shunyi District, China Am. J. Ophthalmol. 129 2000 427 435
317. J. Zhao, J. Mao, R. Luo, F. Li, S.R. Munoz, and L.B. Ellwein The progression of refractive error in school-age children Shunyi district, China Am. J. Ophthalmol. 134 2002 735 743
318. X. Zhu, J.A. Winawer, and J. Wallman Potency of myopic defocus in spectacle lens compensation Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44 2003 2818 2827
319. R. Zylbermann, D. Landau, and D. Berson The influence of study habits on myopia in Jewish teenagers J. Pediatr. Ophthalmol. Strabismus 30 1993 319 322