Practitioner review: What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines

Volumn 54, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 3-16

  Thapar, Anita ^a   Cooper, Miriam ^a   Eyre, Olga ^a   Langley, Kate ^a  

^a CARDIFF UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

ADHD; aetiology; environmental gene interactions; genetics; perinatal; prenatal; risk factors

Indexed keywords

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; COMORBIDITY; DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER; ENVIRONMENT; FEMALE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETICS; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SOCIAL ISOLATION;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER WITH HYPERACTIVITY; COMORBIDITY; DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES; ENVIRONMENT; FEMALE; GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS; PSYCHOSOCIAL DEPRIVATION; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84872836256     PISSN: 00219630     EISSN: 14697610     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02611.x     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Alberts-Corush, J., Firestone, P., &, Goodman, J.T., (1986). Attention and impulsivity characteristics of the biological and adoptive parents of hyperactive and normal control children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56, 413-423. (Pubitemid 17178700)
2. Andrews, G., Pine, D.S., Hobbs, M.J., Anderson, T.M., &, Sunderland, M., (2009). Neurodevelopmental disorders: Cluster 2 of the proposed meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11. [Review]. Psychological Medicine, 39, 2013-2023.
3. Antshel, K.M., Fremont, W., Roizen, N.J., Shprintzen, R., Higgins, A.M., Dhamoon, A.,. &, Kates, W.R., (2006). ADHD, major depressive disorder, and simple phobias are prevalent psychiatric conditions in youth with velocardiofacial syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 596-603.
4. Arnold, L.E., &, DiSilvestro, R.A., (2005). Zinc in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15, 619-627. (Pubitemid 41434366)
5. Bailey, A., Le Couteur, A., Gottesman, I., Bolton, P., Simonoff, E., Yuzda, E.,. &, Rutter, M., (1995). Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: Evidence from a British twin study. Psychological Medicine, 25, 63-77.
6. Bellinger, D.C., (2008a). Very low lead exposures and children's neurodevelopment. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 20, 172-177. (Pubitemid 351365708)
7. Bellinger, D.C., (2008b). Neurological and behavioral consequences of childhood lead exposure. PLoS Med, 5, e115.
8. Bhutta, A.T., Cleves, M.A., Casey, P.H., Cradock, M.M., &, Anand, K.J., (2002). Cognitive and behavioral outcomes of school-aged children who were born preterm: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 728-737. (Pubitemid 34848226)
9. Bouchard, M.F., Bellinger, D.C., Wright, R.O., &, Weisskopf, M.G., (2010). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics, 125, e1270-e1277.
10. Braun, J.M., Kahn, R.S., Froehlich, T., Auinger, P., &, Lanphear, B.P., (2006). Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in U.S. children. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114, 1904-1909. (Pubitemid 44873693)
11. Cantwell, D.P., (1975). Genetics of hyperactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16, 261-264.
12. Caspi, A., Hariri, A.R., Holmes, A., Uher, R., &, Moffitt, T.E., (2010). Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 509-527.
13. Caspi, A., Langley, K., Milne, B., Moffitt, T.E., O'Donovan, M.C., Owen, M.J.,. &, Thapar, A., (2008). A replicated molecular genetic basis for subtyping antisocial behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 203-210. (Pubitemid 351214319)
14. Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T.E., Taylor, A., Craig, I.W., Harrington, H.,. &, Poulton, R., (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386-389. (Pubitemid 36877077)
15. Cirulli, E.T., &, Goldstein, D.B., (2010). Uncovering the roles of rare variants in common disease through whole-genome sequencing. Nature Reviews Genetics, 11, 415-425.
16. Cole, J., Ball, H.A., Martin, N.C., Scourfield, J., &, McGuffin, P., (2009). Genetic overlap between measures of hyperactivity/inattention and mood in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 1094-1101.
17. Collishaw, S., Maughan, B., Natarajan, L., &, Pickles, A., (2010). Trends in adolescent emotional problems in England: a comparison of two national cohorts twenty years apart. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 885-894.
18. Cooper, G.M., Coe, B.P., Girirajan, S., Rosenfeld, J.A., Vu, T.H., Baker, C.,. &, Eichler, E.E., (2011). A copy number variation morbidity map of developmental delay. Nature Genetics, 43, 838-846.
19. Costello, E.J., Compton, S.N., Keeler, G., &, Angold, A., (2003). Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 2023-2029. (Pubitemid 37430585)
20. Cunningham, L., Cadoret, R.J., Loftus, R., &, Edwards, J.E., (1975). Studies of adoptees from psychiatrically disturbed biological parents: Psychiatric conditions in childhood and adolescence. British Journal of Psychiatry, 126, 534-549.
21. D'Onofrio, B., Singh, A.L., Iliadou, A., Lambe, M., Hultman, C.M., Grann, M.,. &, Lichtenstein, P., (2010). Familial confounding of the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring criminality: A population-based study in Sweden. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 529-538.
22. D'Onofrio, B.M., Van Hulle, C.A., Waldman, I.D., Rodgers, J.L., Harden, K.P., Rathouz, P.J.,. &, Lahey, B.B., (2008). Smoking during pregnancy and offspring externalizing problems: An exploration of genetic and environmental confounds. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 139-164. (Pubitemid 351166710)
23. Elia, J., Gai, X., Xie, H.M., Perin, J.C., Geiger, E., Glessner, J.T.,. &, White, P.S., (2010). Rare structural variants found in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder are preferentially associated with neurodevelopmental genes. Mol Psychiatry, 15, 637-646.
24. Eskenazi, B., Marks, A.R., Bradman, A., Harley, K., Barr, D.B., Johnson, C.,. &, Jewell, N.P., (2007). Organophosphate pesticide exposure and neurodevelopment in young Mexican-American children. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115, 792-798. (Pubitemid 46785051)
25. Eubig, P.A., Aguiar, A., &, Schantz, S.L., (2010). Lead and PCBs as risk factors for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118, 1654-1667.
26. Famularo, R., Kinscherff, R., &, Fenton, T., (1992). Psychiatric diagnoses of maltreated children: Preliminary findings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 863-867.
27. Faraone, S.V., Perlis, R.H., Doyle, A.E., Smoller, J.W., Goralnick, J.J., Holmgren, M.A.,. &, Sklar, P., (2005). Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1313-1323. (Pubitemid 40798551)
28. Fergusson, D.M., &, Horwood, L.J., (1995). Predictive validity of categorically and dimensionally scored measures of disruptive childhood behaviors. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 477-487.
29. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization (2010). Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives, seventy-third meeting, summary and conclusions. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
30. Franke, B., Neale, B.M., &, Faraone, S.V., (2009). Genome-wide association studies in ADHD. Human Genetics, 126, 13-50.
31. Froehlich, T.E., Lanphear, B.P., Auinger, P., Hornung, R., Epstein, J.N., Braun, J.,. &, Kahn, R.S., (2009). Association of tobacco and lead exposures with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 124, e1054-e1063.
32. Gizer, I.R., Ficks, C., &, Waldman, I.D., (2009). Candidate gene studies of ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Human Genetics, 126, 51-90.
33. Glessner, J.T., Wang, K., Cai, G., Korvatska, O., Kim, C.E., Wood, S.,. &, Hakonarson, H., (2009). Autism genome-wide copy number variation reveals ubiquitin and neuronal genes. Nature, 459, 569-573.
34. Glover, V., (2011). Annual Research Review: Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 356-367.
35. Grizenko, N., Shayan, Y.R., Polotskaia, A., Ter-Stepanian, M., &, Joober, R., (2008). Relation of maternal stress during pregnancy to symptom severity and response to treatment in children with ADHD. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 33, 10-16. (Pubitemid 351252491)
36. Groen-Blokhuis, M.M., Middeldorp, C.M., van Beijsterveldt, C.E., &, Boomsma, D.I., (2011). Evidence for a causal association of low birth weight and attention problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 1247-1254.
37. Grozeva, D., Conrad, D.F., Barnes, C.P., Hurles, M., Owen, M.J., O'Donovan, M.C.,. & WTCCC (2012). Independent estimation of the frequency of rare CNVs in the UK population confirms their role in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 135, 1-7.
38. Grozeva, D., Kirov, G., Ivanov, D., Jones, I.R., Jones, L., Green, E.K.,. & WTCCC (2010). Rare copy number variants: A point of rarity in genetic risk for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 318-327.
39. Harold, G.T., Rice, F., Hay, D.F., Boivin, J., van den Bree, M., &, Thapar, A., (2011). Familial transmission of depression and antisocial behavior symptoms: Disentangling the contribution of inherited and environmental factors and testing the mediating role of parenting. Psychological Medicine, 41, 1175-1185.
40. Jaffee, S.R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T.E., Polo-Tomas, M., Price, T.S., &, Taylor, A., (2004). The limits of child effects: Evidence for genetically mediated child effects on corporal punishment but not on physical maltreatment. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1047-1058. (Pubitemid 39454155)
41. Johnston, C., Mash, E.J., Miller, N., &, Ninowski, J.E., (2012). Parenting in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 215-228.
42. Kozielec, T., &, Starobrat-Hermelin, B., (1997). Assessment of magnesium levels in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Magnesium Research, 10, 143-148.
43. Kraemer, H.C., Stice, E., Kazdin, A., Offord, D., &, Kupfer, D., (2001). How do risk factors work together? Mediators, moderators, and independent, overlapping, and proxy risk factors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 848-856. (Pubitemid 32547610)
44. Lahey, B.B., D'Onofrio, B., &, Waldman, I.D., (2009). Using epidemiologic methods to test hypotheses regarding causal influences on child and adolescent mental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 53-62.
45. Lander, E.S., (2011). Initial impact of the sequencing of the human genome. Nature, 470, 187-197.
46. Langley, K., Fowler, T., Ford, T., Thapar, A.K., Van den Bree, M., Harold, G.,. &, Thapar, A., (2010). Adolescent clinical outcomes for young people with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 196, 235-240.
47. Langley, K., Heron, J., O'Donovan, M.C., Owen, M.J., &, Thapar, A., (2010). Genotype link with extreme antisocial behavior: The contribution of cognitive pathways. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 1317-1323.
48. Langley, K., Martin, J., Agha, S.S., Davies, C., Stergiakouli, E., Holmans, P.,. &, Thapar, A., (2011). Clinical and cognitive characteristics of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, with and without copy number variants. British Journal of Psychiatry, 199, 398-403.
49. Langley, K., Rice, F., van den Bree, M.B., &, Thapar, A., (2005). Maternal smoking during pregnancy as an environmental risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder behaviour. A review. Minerva Pediatrica, 57, 359-371. (Pubitemid 44251940)
50. Lesch, K.P., Selch, S., Renner, T.J., Jacob, C., Nguyen, T.T., Hahn, T.,. &, Ullmann, R., (2011). Genome-wide copy number variation analysis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Association with neuropeptide Y gene dosage in an extended pedigree. Molecular Psychiatry, 16, 491-503.
51. Lewis, G., Rice, F., Harold, G.T., Collishaw, S., &, Thapar, A., (2011). Investigating environmental links between parent depression and child depressive/anxiety symptoms using an assisted conception design. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 451-459.
52. Li, D., Sham, P.C., Owen, M.J., &, He, L., (2006). Meta-analysis shows significant association between dopamine system genes and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Human Molecular Genetics, 15, 2276-2284. (Pubitemid 43994869)
53. Lichtenstein, P., Carlstrom, E., Rastam, M., Gillberg, C., &, Anckarsater, H., (2010). The genetics of autism spectrum disorders and related neuropsychiatric disorders in childhood. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 1357-1363.
54. Lifford, K.J., Harold, G.T., &, Thapar, A., (2008). Parent-child relationships and ADHD symptoms: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 285-296.
55. Lifford, K.J., Harold, G.T., &, Thapar, A., (2009). Parent-child hostility and child ADHD symptoms: A genetically sensitive and longitudinal analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1468-1476.
56. Linnet, K.M., Dalsgaard, S., Obel, C., Wisborg, K., Henriksen, T.B., Rodriguez, A.,. &, Jarvelin, M.R., (2003). Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and associated behaviors: Review of the current evidence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1028-1040. (Pubitemid 41070961)
57. Maher, B., (2008). Personal genomes: The case of the missing heritability. Nature, 456, 18-21.
58. Marks, A.R., Harley, K., Bradman, A., Kogut, K., Barr, D.B., Johnson, C.,. &, Eskenazi, B., (2010). Organophosphate pesticide exposure and attention in young Mexican-American children: The CHAMACOS study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118, 1768-1774.
59. Mechelli, A., Tognin, S., McGuire, P.K., Prata, D., Sartori, G., Fusar-Poli, P.,. &, Viding, E., (2009). Genetic vulnerability to affective psychopathology in childhood: A combined voxel-based morphometry and functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 231-237.
60. Meyer-Lindenberg, A., &, Weinberger, D.R., (2006). Intermediate phenotypes and genetic mechanisms of psychiatric disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 818-827. (Pubitemid 44435264)
61. Mier, D., Kirsch, P., &, Meyer-Lindenberg, A., (2010). Neural substrates of pleiotropic action of genetic variation in COMT: A meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 918-927.
62. Mill, J., &, Petronis, A., (2008). Pre- and peri-natal environmental risks for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): The potential role of epigenetic processes in mediating susceptibility. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1020-1030.
63. Monuteaux, M.C., Biederman, J., Doyle, A.E., Mick, E., &, Faraone, S.V., (2009). Genetic risk for conduct disorder symptom subtypes in an ADHD sample: Specificity to aggressive symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 757-764.
64. Morrison, J.R., &, Stewart, M.A., (1973). The psychiatric status of the legal families of adopted hyperactive children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 28, 888-891.
65. Najmabadi, H., Hu, H., Garshasbi, M., Zemojtel, T., Abedini, S.S., Chen, W.,. &, Ropers, H.H., (2011). Deep sequencing reveals 50 novel genes for recessive cognitive disorders. Nature, 478, 57-63.
66. Neale, B.M., Medland, S.E., Ripke, S., Asherson, P., Franke, B., Lesch, K.P.,. & Psychiatric GWAS Consortium: ADHD Subgroup. (2010). Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 884-897.
67. NICE. (2008). CG72 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): NICE guideline. Available from: http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG72/NICEGuidance/pdf/ English. [last accessed 1 September 2011].
68. Nigg, J., (2008). ADHD, lead exposure and prevention: How much lead or how much evidence is needed? Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 8, 519-521. (Pubitemid 351551005)
69. Nigg, J., Lewis, K., Edinger, T., &, Falk, M., (2012). Meta-analysis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms, restriction diet and synthetic food color additives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 86-97.
70. Nigg, J., Nikolas, M., &, Burt, S.A., (2010). Measured gene-by-environment interaction in relation to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 863-873.
71. Nigg, J., Nikolas, M., Mark Knowttnerus, G., Kavanagh, K., &, Friderici, K., (2010). Confirmation and extension of association of blood lead with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and ADHD symptom domains at population-typical exposure levels. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 58-65.
72. Nikolas, M.A., &, Burt, S.A., (2010). Genetic and environmental influences on ADHD symptom dimensions of inattention and hyperactivity: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 1-17.
73. O'Connor, T.G., &, Rutter, M., (2000). Attachment disorder behavior following early severe deprivation: Extension and longitudinal follow-up. English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 703-712. (Pubitemid 30351220)
74. Office for National Statistics. (2006). Statistics on smoking, England 2006. Available from: http://www.ic.nhs.uk/statistics-and-data-collections/ health-and-lifestyles/smoking/statistics-on-smoking-england-2006 [last accessed 1 September 2011].
75. Patterson, G.R., DeGarmo, D., &, Forgatch, M.S., (2004). Systematic changes in families following prevention trials. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 621-633. (Pubitemid 39505978)
76. Pheula, G.F., Rohde, L.A., &, Schmitz, M., (2011). Are family variables associated with ADHD, inattentive type? A case-control study in schools. European Child and Adolescent psychiatry, 20, 137-145.
77. Rauh, V.A., Garfinkel, R., Perera, F.P., Andrews, H.F., Hoepner, L., Barr, D.B.,. &, Whyatt, R.W., (2006). Impact of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure on neurodevelopment in the first 3 years of life among inner-city children. Pediatrics, 118, e1845-e1859. (Pubitemid 46397562)
78. Raychaudhuri, S., Korn, J.M., McCarroll, S.A., Altshuler, D., Sklar, P., Purcell, S.,. &, Daly, M.J., (2010). Accurately assessing the risk of schizophrenia conferred by rare copy-number variation affecting genes with brain function. PLoS Genetics, 6, e1001097.
79. Rhee, S.H., &, Waldman, I.D., (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 490-529.
80. Ribas-Fito, N., Torrent, M., Carrizo, D., Julvez, J., Grimalt, J.O., &, Sunyer, J., (2007). Exposure to hexachlorobenzene during pregnancy and children's social behavior at 4 years of age. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115, 447-450. (Pubitemid 46554446)
81. Rice, F., Harold, G., Boivin, J., van den Bree, M.B., &, Thapar, A., (2009). Disentangling prenatal and inherited influences in humans with an experimental design. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in the USA, 106, 2464-2467.
82. Ronald, A., Larsson, H., Anckarsater, H., &, Lichtenstein, P., (2011). A twin study of autism symptoms in Sweden. Molecular Psychiatry, 16, 1039-1047.
83. Ronald, A., Simonoff, E., Kuntsi, J., Asherson, P., &, Plomin, R., (2008). Evidence for overlapping genetic influences on autistic and ADHD behaviours in a community twin sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 535-542. (Pubitemid 351503093)
84. Rutter, M., (2006). Genes and behavior: Nature-nurture interplay explained. Genes, Brain, and Behavior, 5, 303.
85. Rutter, M., (2007). Identifying the environmental causes of disease: How should we decide what to believe and when to take action? London: Academy of Medical Sciences.
86. Rutter, M., (2011). Research review: Child psychiatric diagnosis and classification: Concepts, findings, challenges and potential. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 647-660.
87. Rutter, M., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Colvert, E., Kreppner, J., Mehta, M.,. &, Sonuga-Barke, E., (2007). Effects of profound early institutional deprivation: An overview of findings from a UK longitudinal study of Romanian adoptees. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 4, 332-350.
88. Rutter, M., Kreppner, J., Croft, C., Murin, M., Colvert, E., Beckett, C.,. &, Sonuga-Barke, E., (2007). Early adolescent outcomes of institutionally deprived and non-deprived adoptees. III. Quasi-autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1200-1207. (Pubitemid 350256549)
89. Sagiv, S.K., Thurston, S.W., Bellinger, D.C., Tolbert, P.E., Altshul, L.M., &, Korrick, S.A., (2010). Prenatal organochlorine exposure and behaviors associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in school-aged children. American Journal of Epidemiology, 171, 593-601.
90. Scahill, L., Schwab-Stone, M., Merikangas, K.R., Leckman, J.F., Zhang, H., &, Kasl, S., (1999). Psychosocial and clinical correlates of ADHD in a community sample of school-age children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 976-984. (Pubitemid 29353032)
91. Schaaf, C.P., Wiszniewska, J., &, Beaudet, A.L., (2011). Copy number and SNP arrays in clinical diagnostics. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 12, 25-51.
92. Schachar, R., Taylor, E., Wieselberg, M., Thorley, G., &, Rutter, M., (1987). Changes in family function and relationships in children who respond to methylphenidate. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 728-732. (Pubitemid 18016149)
93. Schantz, S.L., Widholm, J.J., &, Rice, D.C., (2003). Effects of PCB exposure on neuropsychological function in children. Environmental Health Perspectives, 111, 357-576.
94. Scott, S., O'Connor, T.G., Futh, A., Matias, C., Price, J., &, Doolan, M., (2010). Impact of a parenting program in a high-risk, multi-ethnic community: The PALS trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 1331-1341.
95. Sengupta, S.M., Grizenko, N., Schmitz, N., Schwartz, G., Ben Amor, L., Bellingham, J.,. &, Joober, R., (2006). COMT Val108/158Met gene variant, birth weight, and conduct disorder in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1363-1369. (Pubitemid 44665454)
96. Silberg, J.L., Maes, H., &, Eaves, L.J., (2012). Unraveling the effect of genes and environment in the transmission of parental antisocial behavior to children's conduct disturbance, depression and hyperactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 668-677.
97. Sinn, N., (2008). Nutritional and dietary influences on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Nutrition Reviews, 66, 558-568.
98. Smith, T.F., (2010). Meta-analysis of the heterogeneity in association of DRD4 7-repeat allele and AD/HD: Stronger association with AD/HD combined type. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 153B, 1189-1199.
99. Spahis, S., Vanasse, M., Belanger, S.A., Ghadirian, P., Grenier, E., &, Levy, E., (2008). Lipid profile, fatty acid composition and pro- and anti-oxidant status in pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 79, 47-53.
100. Sprich, S., Biederman, J., Crawford, M.H., Mundy, E., &, Faraone, S.V., (2000). Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1432-1437.
101. St Clair, D., (2009). Copy number variation and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 35, 9-12.
102. Stergiakouli, E., Hamshere, M., Holmans, P., Langley, K., Zaharieva, I., Genetics, D.,. &, Thapar, A., (2012). Investigating the contribution of common genetic variants to the risk and pathogenesis of ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 186-194.
103. Stergiakouli, E., &, Thapar, A., (2010). Fitting the pieces together: Current research on the genetic basis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 6, 551-560.
104. Taylor, E., (2011). Antecedents of ADHD: A historical account of diagnostic concepts. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 3, 69-75.
105. Taylor, E., Chadwick, O., Heptinstall, E., &, Danckaerts, M., (1996). Hyperactivity and conduct problems as risk factors for adolescent development. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1213-1226. (Pubitemid 26282602)
106. Taylor, E., &, Sonuga-Barke, E.J., (2008). Disorders of attention and activity. In, M. Rutter, D.V. Bishop, D. Pine, S. Scott, J. Stevenson, E. Taylor, &, A. Thapar, (Eds.), Rutter's textbook of child psychiatry (5th edn, pp. 521-542). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
107. Thapar, A., Collishaw, S., Pine, D.S., &, Thapar, A.K., (2012). Depression in adolescence. Lancet, 379, 1056-1067.
108. Thapar, A., Harrington, R., &, McGuffin, P., (2001). Examining the comorbidity of ADHD-related behaviours and conduct problems using a twin study design. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 224-229. (Pubitemid 32844283)
109. Thapar, A., Holmes, J., Poulton, K., &, Harrington, R., (1999). Genetic basis of attention deficit and hyperactivity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 105-111. (Pubitemid 29089283)
110. Thapar, A., Langley, K., Fowler, T., Rice, F., Turic, D., Whittinger, N.,. &, O'Donovan, M., (2005). Catechol O-methyltransferase gene variant and birth weight predict early-onset antisocial behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 1275-1278. (Pubitemid 41586927)
111. Thapar, A., &, Rice, F., (2006). Twin studies in pediatric depression. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 869-881. (Pubitemid 44307689)
112. Thapar, A., Rice, F., Hay, D., Boivin, J., Langley, K., van den Bree, M.,. &, Harold, G., (2009). Prenatal smoking might not cause attention-deficity/hyperactivity disorder: Evidence from a novel design. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 722-727.
113. Thapar, A., &, Rutter, M., (2009). Do prenatal risk factors cause psychiatric disorder? Be wary of causal claims. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 195, 100-101.
114. Thompson, M.J., Laver-Bradbury, C., Ayres, M., Le Poidevin, E., Mead, S., Dodds, C.,. &, Sonuga-Barke, E.J., (2009). A small-scale randomized controlled trial of the revised new forest parenting programme for preschoolers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 18, 605-616.
115. Tully, E.C., Iacono, W.G., &, McGue, M., (2008). An adoption study of parental depression as an environmental liability for adolescent depression and childhood disruptive disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1148-1154.
116. Weaver, I.C., Diorio, J., Seckl, J.R., Szyf, M., &, Meaney, M.J., (2004). Early environmental regulation of hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: Characterization of intracellular mediators and potential genomic target sites. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1024, 182-212. (Pubitemid 38879602)
117. Willcutt, E.G., Nigg, J., Pennington, B.F., Solanto, M.V., Rohde, L.A., Tannock, R.,. &, Lahey, B.B., (2012). Validity of DSM-IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. In press.
118. Willcutt, E.G., Pennington, B.F., &, DeFries, J.C., (2000). Twin study of the etiology of comorbidity between reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 293-301.
119. Williams, N.M., Franke, B., Mick, E., Anney, R., Freitag, C., Gill, M.,. &, Faraone, S.V., (2012). Genome-wide analysis of copy number variants in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: confirms the role of rare variants and duplications at 15q13.3. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 195-204.
120. Williams, N.M., Zaharieva, I., Martin, A., Langley, K., Mantripragada, K., Fossdal, R.,. &, Thapar, A., (2010). Rare chromosomal deletions and duplications in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A genome-wide analysis. Lancet, 376, 1401-1408.
121. Yang, B., Chan, R.C., Jing, J., Li, T., Sham, P., &, Chen, R.Y., (2007). A meta-analysis of association studies between the 10-repeat allele of a VNTR polymorphism in the 3′-UTR of dopamine transporter gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144B, 541-550. (Pubitemid 46983166)