Gesture's role in speaking, learning, and creating language

Annual Review of Psychology

Volumn 64, Issue , 2013, Pages 257-283

  Goldin Meadow, Susan ^a   Alibali, Martha Wagner ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

cognitive development; emergent sign languages; gesture speech mismatch; homesign

Indexed keywords

EID: 84872449176     PISSN: 00664308     EISSN: 15452085     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143802     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. Acredolo LP, Goodwyn SW. 1988. Symbolic gesturing in normal infants. Child Dev. 59:450-56
2. Acredolo LP, Goodwyn SW. 2002. Baby Signs: How to Talk with Your Baby Before Your Baby Can Talk. New York: McGraw-Hill
3. Alac M, Hutchins E. 2004. I see what you are saying: Action as cognition in fMRI brain mapping practice. J. Cogn. Cult. 4:629-61
4. Alibali MW, Flevares L, Goldin-Meadow S. 1997. Assessing knowledge conveyed in gesture: Do teachers have the upper hand? J. Educ. Psychol. 89:183-93
5. Alibali MW, Goldin-Meadow S. 1993. Gesture-speechmismatch and mechanisms of learning: what the hands reveal about a child's state of mind. Cogn. Psychol. 25:468-523
6. Alibali MW, Heath DC, Myers HJ. 2001. Effects of visibility between speaker and listener on gesture production: Some gestures are meant to be seen. J. Mem. Lang. 44:169-88 (Pubitemid 33379929)
7. Alibali MW, Kita S. 2010. Gesture highlights perceptually present information for speakers. Gesture 10:3-28
8. Alibali MW, Nathan MJ. 2012. Embodiment in mathematics teaching and learning: Evidence from students' and teachers' gestures. J. Learn. Sci. 21:207-15
9. Alibali MW, Spencer RC, Knox L, Kita S. 2011. Spontaneous gestures influence strategy choices in problem solving. Psychol. Sci. 22:1138-44
10. Bates E. 1976. Language and Context: The Acquisition of Pragmatics. New York: Academic
11. Bates E, Benigni L, Bretherton I, Camaioni L, Volterra V. 1979. The Emergence of Symbols: Cognition and Communication in Infancy. New York: Academic
12. Beilock SL, Goldin-Meadow S. 2010. Gesture changes thought by grounding it in action. Psychol. Sci. 21:1605-10
13. Bergmann K, Kopp S. 2010. Systematicity and idiosyncrasy in iconic gesture use: empirical analysis and computational modeling. In Gesture in Embodied Communication and Human-Computer Interaction, ed. S Kopp, I Wachsmuth, pp. 182-94. Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: Springer
14. Bernabei P, Camaoini L, Levi G. 1998. An evaluation of early development in children with autism and pervasive developmental disorders from home movies: preliminary findings. Autism 2:243-58 (Pubitemid 128537446)
15. Bonvillian JD, Orlansky MO, Novack LL. 1983. Developmental milestones: sign language acquisition and motor development. Child Dev. 54:1435-45
16. Braddock BA. 2007. Links between language, gesture, and motor skill: A longitudinal study of communication recovery in Broca's aphasia. PhD thesis, Univ. Missouri-Columbia
17. Brentari D, Coppola M, Mazzoni L, Goldin-Meadow S. 2012. When does a system become phonological? Handshape production in gesturers, signers, and homesigners. Nat. Lang. Linguistic Theory 30(1):1-31
18. Broaders SC, Cook SW, Mitchell Z, Goldin-Meadow S. 2007. Making children gesture brings out implicit knowledge and leads to learning. J. Exp. Psychol. : Gen. 136:539-50
19. Broaders SC, Goldin-Meadow S. 2010. Truth is at hand: how gesture adds information during investigative interviews. Psychol. Sci. 21:623-28
20. Butterworth G, Grover L. 1988. The origins of referential communication in human infancy. In Thought Without Language, ed. LWeiskrantz, pp. 5-24. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
21. Capirci O, Iverson JM, Pizzuto E, Volterra V. 1996. Communicative gestures during the transition to twoword speech. J. Child Lang. 23:645-73 (Pubitemid 126327349)
22. Capone N, McGregor K. 2004. Gesture development: A review for clinical and research practices. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 47:173-86 (Pubitemid 38338391)
23. Carpenter M, Nagell K, Tomasello M. 1998. Social cognition, joint attention, and communicative competence from 9 to 15 months of age. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 63:i-vi, 1-143
24. Chawla P, Krauss RM. 1994. Gesture and speech in spontaneous and rehearsed narratives. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 30:580-601
25. Chen Pichler D. 2008. Acquisition of word order: Then and now. In Selected Papers from the 8th Congress on Theoretical Issues in Sign Language Research, ed. J Quer, pp. 293-315.
26. Church RB. 1999. Using gesture and speech to capture transitions in learning. Cogn. Dev. 14:313-42
27. Church RB, Ayman-Nolley S, Mahootian S. 2004. The role of gesture in bilingual education: Does gesture enhance learning? Int. J. Bilingual Educ. Bilingualism 7:303-19
28. Church RB, Goldin-Meadow S. 1986. The mismatch between gesture and speech as an index of transitional knowledge. Cognition 23:43-71
29. Church RB, Schonert-Reichl K, Goodman N, Kelly S, Ayman-Nolley S. 1995. The role of gesture and speech communication as a reflection of cognitive understanding. J. Contemp. Legal Issues 6:237-80
30. Coerts JA. 2000. Early sign combinations in the acquisition of Sign Language of theNetherlands: evidence for language-specific features. In Language Acquisition By Eye, ed. C Chamberlain, JP Morford, R Mayberry, pp. 91-109. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
31. Cook SW, Goldin-Meadow S. 2006. The role of gesture in learning: Do children use their hands to change their minds? J. Cogn. Dev. 7:211-32 (Pubitemid 44083509)
32. Cook SW, Yip T, Goldin-Meadow S. 2012. Gestures, but not meaningless movements, lighten working memory load when explaining math. Lang. Cogn. Proc. 27:594-610
33. Coppola M, Newport EL. 2005. Grammatical subjects in homesign: Abstract linguistic structure in adult primary gesture systems without linguistic input. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:19249-53 (Pubitemid 43049598)
34. Coppola M, Senghas A. 2010. The emergence of deixis in Nicaraguan signing. In Sign Languages: A Cambridge Language Survey, ed. D Brentari, pp. 543-69. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
35. Coppola M, Spaepen E, Goldin-Meadow S. 2012. Communicating about number without a language model: Linguistic devices for number are robust. Under review de Laguna G. 1927. Speech: Its Function and Development. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
36. Emmorey K. 1999. Do signers gesture? In Gesture, Speech, and Sign, ed. LS Messing, R Campbell, pp. 133-59. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
37. Enfield NJ. 2005. The body as a cognitive artifact in kinship representations. Hand gesture diagrams by speakers of Lao. Curr. Anthropol. 46(1):51-81 (Pubitemid 44277196)
38. Evans MA, Rubin KH. 1979. Hand gestures as a communicative mode in school-aged children. J. Genet. Psychol. 135:189-96
39. Feldman H, Goldin-Meadow S, Gleitman L. 1978. Beyond Herodotus: The creation of language by linguistically deprived deaf children. In Action, Symbol, and Gesture: The Emergence of Language, ed. A Lock, pp. 351-414. New York: Academic
40. Flaherty M, Goldin-Meadow S. 2010. Does input matter? Gesture and homesign in Nicaragua, China, Turkey, and the USA. In Proceedings of the Eighth Evolution of Language Conference, ed. ADMSmith, MSchouwstra, BD Boer, K Smith, pp. 403-4. Singapore: World Sci. Publ.
41. Franklin A, Giannakidou A, Goldin-Meadow S. 2011. Negation, questions, and structure building in a homesign system. Cognition 118:398-416
42. Garber P, Goldin-Meadow S. 2002. Gesture offers insight into problem solving in adults and children. Cogn. Sci. 26:817-31
43. Gershkoff-Stowe L, Goldin-Meadow S. 2002. Is there a natural order for expressing semantic relations? Cogn. Psychol. 45:375-412 (Pubitemid 39659781)
44. Goldin-Meadow S. 2003a. Hearing Gesture: How Our Hands Help Us Think. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
45. Goldin-Meadow S. 2003b. The Resilience of Language:What Gesture Creation in Deaf Children Can Tell Us About How All Children Learn Language. New York: Psychol. Press
46. Goldin-Meadow S, Butcher C. 2003. Pointing toward two-word speech in young children. In Pointing:Where Language, Culture, and Cognition Meet, ed. S Kita, pp. 85-107.
47. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Goldin-Meadow S, Butcher C, Mylander C, Dodge M. 1994. Nouns and verbs in a self-styled gesture system: What's in a name? Cogn. Psychol. 27:259-319
48. Goldin-Meadow S, Gelman S, Mylander C. 2005. Expressing generic concepts with and without a language model. Cognition 96:109-26 (Pubitemid 40733602)
49. Goldin-Meadow S, Goodrich W, Sauer E, Iverson JM. 2007a. Young children use their hands to tell their mothers what to say. Dev. Sci. 10:778-85
50. Goldin-Meadow S, Iverson JM. 2010. Gesturing across the lifespan. In Cognition, Biology, and Methods Across the Lifespan, ed. WF Overton, pp. 36-55. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
51. Goldin-Meadow S, Kim S, Singer M. 1999. What the teachers' hands tell the students' minds about math. J. Educ. Psychol. 91:720-30
52. Goldin-Meadow S, McNeill D, Singleton J. 1996. Silence is liberating: removing the handcuffs on grammatical expression in the manual modality. Psychol. Rev. 103:34-55 (Pubitemid 126421421)
53. Goldin-Meadow S, Morford M. 1985. Gesture in early child language: studies of deaf and hearing children. Merrill-Palmer Q. 31:145-76
54. Goldin-Meadow S, Mylander C. 1983. Gestural communication in deaf children: The non-effects of parental input on language development. Science 221:372-74 (Pubitemid 13067834)
55. Goldin-Meadow S, Mylander C. 1998. Spontaneous sign systems created by deaf children in two cultures. Nature 91:279-81 (Pubitemid 28099013)
56. Goldin-Meadow S, Mylander C, Franklin A. 2007b. How children make language out of gesture: morphological structure in gesture systems developed by American and Chinese deaf children. Cogn. Psychol. 55:87-135
57. Goldin-Meadow S, Nusbaum H, Kelly SD, Wagner SM. 2001. Explaining math: gesturing lightens the load. Psychol. Sci. 12:516-22 (Pubitemid 33653571)
58. Goldin-Meadow S, Sandhofer CM. 1999. Gesture conveys substantive information about a child's thoughts to ordinary listeners. Dev. Sci. 2:67-74
59. Goldin-Meadow S, Shield A, Lenzen D, Herzig M, Padden C. 2012. The gestures ASL signers use tell us when they are ready to learn math. Cognition 123:448-53
60. Goldin-Meadow S, Singer MA. 2003. From children's hands to adults' ears: gesture's role in the learning process. Dev. Psychol. 39:509-20 (Pubitemid 37189410)
61. Goldin-Meadow S, So W-C, Ozyurek A, Mylander C. 2008. The natural order of events: how speakers of different languages represent events nonverbally. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:9163-68
62. Goldin-Meadow S, Wein D, Chang C. 1992. Assessing knowledge through gesture: using children's hands to read their minds. Cogn. Instr. 9:201-19
63. Golinkoff RM. 1986. "I beg your pardon?": The preverbal negotiation of failed messages. J. Child Lang. 13:455-76
64. Goodwin C. 2007. Environmentally coupled gestures. In Gesture and the Dynamic Dimensions of Language, ed. S Duncan, J Cassell, E Levy, pp. 195-212. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins
65. Goodwyn S, Acredolo L. 1998. Encouraging symbolic gestures: A new perspective on the relationship between gesture and speech. In The Nature and Functions of Gesture in Children's Communication, ed. JM Iverson, S Goldin-Meadow, pp. 61-73. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
66. Greenfield P, Smith J. 1976. The Structure of Communication in Early Language Development. New York: Academic
67. Guidetti M. 2002. The emergence of pragmatics: forms and functions of conventional gestures in young French children. First Lang. 22:265-85
68. Guillaume P. 1927. Les debuts de la phrase dans le langage de l'enfant. J. Psychol. 24:1-25
69. Hall M, Mayberry R, Ferreira V. 2010. Communication systems shape the natural order of events: competing biases from grammar and pantomime. In Abstr. 4th Conf. Intl. Soc. Gesture Stud., Frankfurt an der Oder, Germany
70. Hoffmeister R, Wilbur R. 1980. Developmental: The acquisition of sign language. In Recent Perspectives on American Sign Language, ed. H Lane, F Grosjean, pp. 64-78. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
71. Holler J, Shovelton H, Beattie G. 2009. Do iconic hand gestures really contribute to the communication of semantic information in a face-to-face context? J. Nonverbal Behav. 33:73-88
72. Hostetter AB. 2011. When do gestures communicate? A meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 137:297-315
73. Hostetter AB, Alibali MW. 2007. Raise your hand if you're spatial: relations between verbal and spatial skills and gesture production. Gesture 7:73-95
74. Hostetter AB, Alibali MW. 2008. Visible embodiment: gestures as simulated action. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 15:495-514
75. Hostetter AB, Alibali MW. 2010. Language, gesture, action! A test of the Gesture as Simulated Action framework. J. Mem. Lang. 63:245-57
76. Hostetter AB, Alibali MW, Kita S. 2007. I see it in my hands' eye: Representational gestures reflect conceptual demands. Lang. Cogn. Proc. 22:313-36 (Pubitemid 47039387)
77. Hostetter AB, Bieda K, Alibali MW, Nathan MJ, Knuth EJ. 2006. Don't just tell them, show them! Teachers can intentionally alter their instructional gestures. In Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, ed. R Sun, pp. 1523-28. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
78. Hunsicker D, Goldin-Meadow S. 2012. Hierarchical structure in a self-created communication system: building nominal constituents in homesign. Language. In Press
79. Iverson JM, Capirci O, Caselli MS. 1994. From communication to language in two modalities. Cogn. Dev. 9:23-43
80. Iverson JM, Capirci O, Longobardi E, Caselli MC. 1999. Gesturing in mother-child interactions. Cogn. Dev. 14:57-75
81. Iverson JM, Capirci O, Volterra V, Goldin-Meadow S. 2008. Learning to talk in a gesture-rich world: early communication of Italian versus American children. First Lang. 28:164-81
82. Iverson JM, Goldin-Meadow S. 1998. Why people gesture when they speak. Nature 396:228 (Pubitemid 28541379)
83. Iverson JM, Goldin-Meadow S. 2005. Gesture paves the way for language development. Psychol. Sci. 16:368-71
84. Jacobs N, Garnham A. 2007. The role of conversational hand gestures in a narrative task. J. Mem. Lang. 56:291-303
85. Kegl J, Senghas A, Coppola M. 1999. Creation through contact: sign language emergence and sign language change in Nicaragua. In Language Creation and Language Change: Creolization, Diachrony, and Development, ed. M DeGraff, pp. 179-237. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
86. Kelly SD, Church RB. 1997. Can children detect conceptual information conveyed through other children's nonverbal behaviors? Cogn. Instr. 15:107-34 (Pubitemid 127360698)
87. Kelly SD, Church RB. 1998. A comparison between children's and adults' ability to detect conceptual information conveyed through representational gestures. Child Dev. 69:85-93 (Pubitemid 128453694)
88. Kita S. 2000. How representational gestures help speaking. In Language and Gesture, ed. DMcNeill, pp. 162-85. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
89. Kita S, Ozyurek A. 2003. What does cross-linguistic variation in semantic coordination of speech and gesture reveal? Evidence for an interface representation of spatial thinking and speaking. J. Mem. Lang. 48:16-32
90. Klima E, Bellugi U. 1979. The Signs of Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
91. Krauss RM. 1998. Why do we gesture when we speak? Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 7:54-60 (Pubitemid 128187711)
92. Krauss RM, Chen Y, Chawla P. 1996. Nonverbal behavior and nonverbal communication: What do conversational hand gestures tell us? Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 28:389-450
93. Krauss RM, Chen Y, Gottesman R. 2000. Lexical gestures and lexical access: A process model. In Language and Gesture, ed. D McNeill, pp. 261-83. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
94. Krauss RM, Dushay R, Chen Y, Rauscher F. 1995. The communicative value of conversational hand gestures. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 31:533-52 (Pubitemid 126028846)
95. Langus A, Nespor M. 2010. Cognitive systems struggling for word order. Cogn. Psychol. 60:291-318
96. Leopold W. 1949. Speech Development of a Bilingual Child: A Linguist's Record, Vol. 3. Evanston, IL: Northwestern Univ. Press
97. Lillo-Martin D. 1999. Modality effects and modularity in language acquisition: The acquisition of American Sign Language. In Handbook of Child Language Acquisition, ed. WC Ritchie, TK Bhatia, pp. 531-67. New York: Academic
98. Masur EF. 1982. Mothers' responses to infants' object-related gestures: influences on lexical development. J. Child Lang. 9:23-30
99. Masur EF. 1983. Gestural development, dual-directional signaling, and the transition to words. J. Psycholinguist. Res. 12:93-109
100. Mayberry RI. 1992. The cognitive development of deaf children: recent insights. In Child Neuropsychology, ed. S Segalowitz, I Rapin, pp. 51-68. Amsterdam: Elsevier
101. McNeil NM, Alibali MW, Evans JL. 2000. The role of gesture in children's comprehension of spoken language: Now they need it, now they don't. J. Nonverbal Behav. 24:131-50
102. McNeill D. 1992. Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal About Thought. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
103. McNeill D. 2005. Gesture and Thought. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
104. McNeill D, Cassell J, McCullough K-E. 1994. Communicative effects of speech-mismatched gestures. Res. Lang. Soc. Interact. 27:223-37
105. McNeill D, Duncan S. 2000. Growth points in thinking-for-speaking. In Language and Gesture, ed. DMcNeill, pp. 141-61. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
106. Meier RP. 1987. Elicited imitation of verb agreement in American Sign Language: iconically or morphologically determined? J. Mem. Lang. 26:362-76
107. Meir I, Lifshitz A, Ilkbasaran D, Padden C. 2010. The interaction of animacy and word order in human languages: A study of strategies in a novel communication task. In Proceedings of the Eighth Evolution of Language Conference, ed. ADM Smith, MSchouwstra, B de Boer, K Smith, pp. 455-56. Singapore: World Sci. Publ.
108. Melinger A, Levelt WJM. 2004. Gesture and the communicative intention of the speaker. Gesture 4:119-41
109. Mitchell S, Brian J, Zwaigenbaum L, Roberts W, Szatmari P, et al. 2006. Early language and communication development of infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 27:S69-78 (Pubitemid 44620287)
110. Mol L, Krahmer E, Maes A, Swerts M. 2011. Seeing and being seen: The effects on gesture production. J. Comput. Med. Commun. 17:77-100
111. Morford JP. 1995. How to hunt an iguana: The gestured narratives of non-signing deaf children. In Sign Language Research 1994: Proceedings of the Fourth European Congress on Sign Language Research, ed. H Bos, T Schermer, pp. 99-115. Hamburg: Signum
112. Morford M, Goldin-Meadow S. 1992. Comprehension and production of gesture in combination with speech in one-word speakers. J. Child Lang. 19:559-80
113. Morford JP, Goldin-Meadow S. 1997. From here and now to there and then: The development of displaced reference in homesign and English. Child Dev. 68:420-35 (Pubitemid 127456027)
114. Morsella E, Krauss RM. 2004. The role of gestures in spatial working memory and speech. Am. J. Psychol. 117:411-24 (Pubitemid 39383674)
115. Murphy CM, Messer DJ. 1977. Mothers, infants and pointing: A study of a gesture. In Studies in Mother-Infant Interaction, ed. HR Schaffer, pp. 325-54. London: Academic
116. Namy LL, Acredolo LP, Goodwyn SW. 2000. Verbal labels and gestural routines in parental communication with young children. J. Nonverbal Behav. 24:63-79
117. Newport EL, Meier RP. 1985. The acquisition of American Sign Language. In The Cross-Linguistic Study of Language Acquisition, Vol. 1: The Data, ed. DI Slobin, pp. 881-938. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
118. Osterling J, Dawson G. 1994. Early recognition of children with autism: A study of first birthday home videotapes. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 24:247-57 (Pubitemid 24157163)
119. Ozcaliskan S, Goldin-Meadow S. 2005. Gesture is at the cutting edge of early language development. Cognition 96:B101-13 (Pubitemid 40922872)
120. Ozyurek A, Kita S, Allen S, Brown A, Furman R, Ishizuka T. 2008. Development of cross-linguistic variation in speech and gesture: motion events in English and Turkish. Dev. Psychol. 44:1040-54
121. Pan BA, Rowe ML, Singer JD, Snow CE. 2005. Maternal correlates of growth in toddler vocabulary production in low-income families. Child Dev. 76:763-82 (Pubitemid 41152617)
122. Perry M, Church RB, Goldin-Meadow S. 1988. Transitional knowledge in the acquisition of concepts. Cogn. Dev. 3:359-400
123. Phillips SBVD, Goldin-Meadow S, Miller PJ. 2001. Enacting stories, seeing worlds: similarities and differences in the cross-cultural narrative development of linguistically isolated deaf children. Hum. Dev. 44:311-36
124. Pine KJ, Lufkin N, Messer D. 2004. More gestures than answers: children learning about balance. Dev. Psychol. 40:1059-67 (Pubitemid 39454156)
125. Ping R, Goldin-Meadow S. 2010. Gesturing saves cognitive resources when talking about nonpresent objects. Cogn. Sci. 34:602-19
126. Ping R, Decatur MA, Larson SW, Zinchenko E, Goldin-Meadow S. 2012. Gesture-speech mismatch predicts who will learn to solve an organic chemistry problem. Presented at annu. meet. Am. Educ. Res. Assoc., New Orleans
127. Rauscher FH, Krauss RM, Chen Y. 1996. Gesture, speech, and lexical access: The role of lexical movements in speech production. Psychol. Sci. 7:226-31
128. Richland LE, Zur O, Holyoak KJ. 2007. Cognitive supports for analogies in the mathematics classroom. Science 316:1128-29 (Pubitemid 46880957)
129. Roth W-M. 2002. Gestures: Their role in teaching and learning. Rev. Educ. Res. 71:365-92
130. Rowe ML. 2000. Pointing and talk by low-income mothers and their 14-month-old children. First Lang. 20:305-30
131. Rowe ML, Goldin-Meadow S. 2009. Differences in early gesture explain SES disparities in child vocabulary size at school entry. Science 323:951-53
132. Rowe ML, Ozcalskan S, Goldin-Meadow S. 2008. Learning words by hand: gesture's role in predicting vocabulary development. First Lang. 28:185-203
133. Sandler W, Lillo-Martin D. 2006. Sign Language and Linguistic Universals. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
134. Sandler W, Meir I, Padden C, Aronoff M. 2005. The emergence of grammar: systematic structure in a new language. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Am. 102:2661-65 (Pubitemid 40279433)
135. Sassenberg U, Van DerMeer E. 2010. Do we really gesturemorewhen it ismore difficult? Cogn. Sci. 34:643-64
136. Sauer E, Levine SC, Goldin-Meadow S. 2010. Early gesture predicts language delay in children with pre-and perinatal brain lesions. Child Dev. 81:528-39
137. Senghas A. 1995. The development of Nicaraguan Sign Language via the language acquisition process. Proc. Boston Univ. Child Lang. Dev. 19:543-52
138. Senghas A. 2003. Intergenerational influence and ontogenetic development in the emergence of spatial grammar in Nicaraguan Sign Language. Cogn. Dev. 18:511-31 (Pubitemid 37468892)
139. Senghas A, Kita S, Ozyurek A. 2004. Children creating core properties of language: evidence from an emerging sign language in Nicaragua. Science 305:1779-82 (Pubitemid 39249646)
140. Shatz M. 1982. On mechanisms of language acquisition: Can features of the communicative environment account for development? In Language Acquisition: The State of the Art, ed. E Wanner, L Gleitman, pp. 102-27. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
141. Singer MA, Goldin-Meadow S. 2005. Children learn when their teacher's gestures and speech differ. Psychol. Sci. 16:85-89 (Pubitemid 40306124)
142. Singleton JL, Morford JP, Goldin-Meadow S. 1993. Once is not enough: standards of well-formedness in manual communication created over three different timespans. Language 69:683-715
143. Streeck J. 2009. Gesturecraft: The Manu-facture of Meaning. Amsterdam: Benjamins
144. Sueyoshi A, Hardison DM. 2005. The role of gestures and facial cues in second language listening comprehension. Lang. Learn. 55:661-99 (Pubitemid 41766725)
145. Supalla T. 1990. Serial verbs of motion in American Sign Language. In Issues in Sign Language Research, ed. S Fischer, P Siple, pp. 127-52. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
146. Valenzeno L, Alibali MW, Klatzky RL. 2003. Teachers' gestures facilitate students' learning: A lesson in symmetry. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 28:187-204 (Pubitemid 36445964)
147. Wagner SM, Nusbaum H, Goldin-Meadow S. 2004. Probing the mental representation of gesture: Is handwaving spatial? J. Mem. Lang. 50:395-407 (Pubitemid 38651594)
148. Zinober B, Martlew M. 1985. Developmental changes in four types of gesture in relation to acts and vocalizations from 10 to 21 months. Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 3:293-306
149. Zukow-Goldring P. 1996. Sensitive caregivers foster the comprehension of speech: when gestures speak louder than words. Early Dev. Parenting 5:195-211 (Pubitemid 126466305)