The meaning of acute kidney injury and its relevance to intensive care and anaesthesia

Anaesthesia and Intensive Care

Volumn 40, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 929-948

  Moore, E M ^a   Bellomo, R ^a   Nichol, A D ^a  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Acute kidney injury; Anaesthesia; Intensive care

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ACICLOVIR; AMINOGLYCOSIDE; AMPHOTERICIN B; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; APROTININ; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CONTRAST MEDIUM; CYCLOSPORIN; DEXAMETHASONE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; ERYTHROPOIETIN; FENTANYL; GENTAMICIN; HETASTARCH; HYDROMORPHONE; ISOFLURANE; METHOTREXATE; METHOXYFLURANE; MORPHINE; NEUROHORMONE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PETHIDINE; PLACEBO; PROPOFOL; SEVOFLURANE; SULFONAMIDE; TERLIPRESSIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; CREATININE;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ANESTHESIA; CARDIORENAL SYNDROME; CONTRAST INDUCED NEPHROPATHY; CREATININE BLOOD LEVEL; CRYSTALLOID; DELIRIUM; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG INDUCED DISEASE; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; DYSPHORIA; FLUID RESUSCITATION; FLUID THERAPY; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; HEART SURGERY; HEPATORENAL SYNDROME; HORMONE RESPONSE; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INTENSIVE CARE; KIDNEY FUNCTION; KIDNEY INJURY; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERIOPERATIVE PERIOD; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHESIS; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; REVIEW; RHABDOMYOLYSIS; RISK FACTOR; SEIZURE; SEROTONIN SYNDROME; SPLANCHNIC BLOOD FLOW; TREMOR; URINE VOLUME; VASOCONSTRICTION; ANIMAL; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BLOOD; DISEASE MODEL; METHODOLOGY; RESEARCH; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX;

ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY; ANESTHESIA; ANIMALS; CREATININE; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; INTENSIVE CARE; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; PERIOPERATIVE CARE; RESEARCH; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX;

EID: 84871854586     PISSN: 0310057X     EISSN: 14480271     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0310057x1204000604     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA, Mehta RL, Palevsky P. Acute renal failure - definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit Care 2004; 8:R204-212.
2. Ricci Z, Cruz D, Ronco C. The RIFLE criteria and mortality in acute kidney injury: a systematic review. Kidney Int 2008; 73:538-546.
3. Chertow GM, Burdick E, Honour M, Bonventre J, Bates DW. Acute kidney injury, mortality, length of stay, and costs in hospitalized patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16:3365-3370.
4. Moore EM, Simpson JA, Tobin A, Santamaria J. Preoperative estimated glomerular filtration rate and RIFLE-classified postoperative acute kidney injury predict length of stay post-coronary bypass surgery in an Australian setting. Anaesth Intensive Care 2010; 38:113-121.
5. Uchino S, Bellomo R, Goldsmith D, Bates S, Ronco C. An assessment of the RIFLE criteria for acute renal failure in hospitalized patients. Crit Care Med 2006; 34:1913-1917.
6. Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, Molitoris BA, Ronco C, Warnock DG et al. Acute Kidney Injury Network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 2007; 11:R31.
7. Khwaja A. KDIGO Clinical Practice Guidelines for Acute Kidney Injury. Nephron Clin Pract 2012; 120:179-184.
8. Bagshaw SM, George C, Bellomo R. A comparison of the RIFLE and AKIN criteria for acute kidney injury in critically ill patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23:1569-1574.
9. Joannidis M, Metnitz B Bauer P, Schusterschitz N, Moreno R, Druml W et al. Acute kidney injury in critically ill patients classified by AKIN versus RIFLE using the SAPS 3 database. Intensive Care Med 2009; 35:1692-1702.
10. Lopes JA, Fernandes P, Jorge S, Goncalves S, Alvarez A, Costa e Silva Z et al. Acute kidney injury in intensive care unit patients: a comparison between the RIFLE and the Acute Kidney Injury Network classifications. Crit Care 2008; 12:R110.
11. Robert AM, Kramer RS, Dacey LJ, Charlesworth DC, Leavitt BJ, Helm RE et al. Cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury: a comparison of two consensus criteria. Ann Thorac Surg 2010; 90:1939-1943.
12. Srisawat N, Murugan R, Wen Xi, Singbartl K, Clermont G, Eiam-Ong S et al. Recovery from acute kidney injury: determinants and predictors. Contrib Nephrol 2010; 165:284-291.
13. Bagshaw SM, George C, Dinu I, Bellomo R. A multi-centre evaluation of the RIFLE criteria for early acute kidney injury in critically ill patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23:1203-1210.
14. Ostermann M, Chang RWS. Acute kidney injury in the intensive care unit according to RIFLE. Crit Care Med 2007; 35:1837-1843; quiz 1852.
15. Parmar A, Langenberg C, Wan L, May CN, Bellomo R, Bagshaw SM. Epidemiology of septic acute kidney injury. Curr Drug Targets 2009; 10:1169-7811.
16. Bagshaw SM, George C, Bellomo R. Early acute kidney injury and sepsis: a multicentre evaluation. Crit Care 2008; 12:R47.
17. Bagshaw SM, Lapinsky S, Dial S, Arabi Y, Dodek P, Wood G et al. Acute kidney injury in septic shock: clinical outcomes and impact of duration of hypotension prior to initiation of antimicrobial therapy. Intensive Care Med 2009; 35:871-881.
18. Bagshaw SM, George C, Gibney RTN, Bellomo R. A multicenter evaluation of early acute kidney injury in critically ill trauma patients. Ren Fail 2008; 30:581-589.
19. Moore EM, Bellomo R, Nichol A, Harley N, Macisaac C, Cooper DJ. The incidence of acute kidney injury in patients with traumatic brain injury. Ren Fail 2010; 32:1060-1065.
20. Bellomo R. The epidemiology of acute renal failure: 1975 versus 2005. Curr Opin Crit Care 2006; 12:557-560.
21. Thakar CV, Worley S, Arrigain S, Yared JP, Paganini EP. Improved survival in acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery. Am J Kidney Dis 2007; 50:703-711.
22. Uchino S, Kellum JA, Bellomo R, Doig GS, Morimatsu H, Morgera S et al. Acute renal failure in critically ill patients: a multinational, multicenter study. JAMA 2005; 294:813-818.
23. Reineck HJ, O'Connor GJ, Lifschitz MD, Stein JH. Sequential studies on the pathophysiology of glycerol-induced acute renal failure. J Lab Clin Med 1980; 96:356-362.
24. Langenberg C, Bagshaw SM, May CN, Bellomo R. The histopathology of septic acute kidney injury: a systematic review. Crit Care 2008; 12:R38.
25. Bellomo R, Bagshaw S, Langenberg C, Ronco C. Pre-renal azotemia: a flawed paradigm in critically ill septic patients? Contrib Nephrol 2007; 156:1-9.
26. Moreau R, Lebrec D. Acute kidney injury: new concepts. Hepatorenal syndrome: the role of vasopressors. Nephron Physiol 2008; 109:73-79.
27. Gluud LL, Christensen K, Christensen E, Krag A. Systematic review of randomized trials on vasoconstrictor drugs for hepatorenal syndrome. Hepatology 2010; 51:576-584.
28. Sagi SV, Mittal S, Kasturi KS, Sood GK. Terlipressin therapy for reversal of type 1 hepatorenal syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010; 25:880-885.
29. Damman K, Navis G, Smilde TDJ, Voors AA, van der Bij W, van Veldhuisen DJ et al. Decreased cardiac output, venous congestion and the association with renal impairment in patients with cardiac dysfunction. Eur J Heart Fail 2007; 9:872-878.
30. Slater MS, Mullins RJ. Rhabdomyolysis and myoglobinuric renal failure in trauma and surgical patients: a review. J Am Coll Surg 1998; 186:693-716.
31. Bosch X, Poch E, Grau JM. Rhabdomyolysis and acute kidney injury. N Engl J Med 2009; 361:62-72.
32. Bentley ML, Corwin HL, Dasta J. Drug-induced acute kidney injury in the critically ill adult: recognition and prevention strategies. Crit Care Med 2010; 38:S169-174.
33. Markowitz GS, Perazella MA. Drug-induced renal failure: a focus on tubulointerstitial disease. Clin Chim Acta 2005; 351:31-47.
34. Verme-Gibboney C. Oral angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1997; 54:2689-2703.
35. Olyaei AJ, de Mattos AM, Bennett WM. Immunosuppressant-induced nephropathy: pathophysiology, incidence and management. Drug Saf 1999; 21:471-488.
36. Heyman SN, Rosenberger C, Rosen S. Regional alterations in renal haemodynamics and oxygenation: a role in contrast medium-induced nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2005; 20 Suppl 1:i6-11.
37. Rundback JH, Nahl D, Yoo V. Contrast-induced nephropathy. J Vasc Surg 2011; 54:575-579.
38. McCullough PA, Bertrand ME, Brinker JA, Stacul F. A meta-analysis of the renal safety of isosmolar iodixanol compared with low-osmolar contrast media. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48:692-699.
39. Ranucci M, Ballotta A, Kunkl A, De Benedetti D, Kandil H, Conti D et al. Influence of the timing of cardiac catheterization and the amount of contrast media on acute renal failure after cardiac surgery. Am J Cardiol 2008; 101:1112-1118.
40. Allaqaband S, Tumuluri R, Malik AM, Gupta A, Volkert P, Shalev Y et al. Prospective randomized study of N-acetylcysteine, fenoldopam, and saline for prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2002; 57:279-283.
41. Stone GW, McCullough PA, Tumlin JA, Lepor NE, Madyoon H, Murray P et al. Fenoldopam mesylate for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003; 290:2284-2291.
42. Patel NN, Rogers CA, Angelini GD, Murphy GJ. Pharmacological therapies for the prevention of acute kidney injury following cardiac surgery: a systematic review. Heart Fail Rev 2011; 16:553-567.
43. de Mendonca A, Vincent JL, Suter PM, Moreno R, Dearden NM, Antonelli M et al. Acute renal failure in the ICU: risk factors and outcome evaluated by the SOFA score. Intensive Care Med 2000; 26:915-921.
44. Abelha FJ, Botelho M, Fernandes V, Barros H. Determinants of postoperative acute kidney injury. Crit Care 2009; 13:R79.
45. Bahar I, Akgul A, Ozatik MA, Vural KM, Demirbag AE, Boran M et al. Acute renal failure following open heart surgery: risk factors and prognosis. Perfusion 2005; 20:317-322.
46. Bove T, Calabro MG, Landoni G, Aletti G, Marino G, Crescenzi G et al. The incidence and risk of acute renal failure after cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2004; 18:442-445.
47. Karkouti K, Wijeysundera DN, Yau TM, Callum JL, Cheng DC, Crowther M et al. Acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery: focus on modifiable risk factors. Circulation 2009; 119:495-502.
48. Koch CG, Li L, Sessler DI, Figueroa P, Hoeltge GA, Mihaljevic T et al. Duration of red-cell storage and complications after cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med 2008; 358:1229-1239.
49. Dart AB, Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Taback SP. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; 1:CD007594.
50. Perner A, Haase N, Guttormsen AB, Tenhunen J, Klemenzson G, Aneman Anders M et al. Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.42 versus Ringer's acetate in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2012; 367:124-134.
51. Nielsen VG. Effects of Hextend hemodilution on plasma coagulation kinetics in the rabbit: role of factor XIII-mediated fibrin polymer crosslinking. J Surg Res 2006; 132:17-22.
52. Schramko A, Suojaranta-Ylinen R, Kuitunen A, Raivio P, Kukkonen S, Niemi T. Hydroxyethylstarch and gelatin solutions impair blood coagulation after cardiac surgery: a prospective randomized trial. Br J Anaesth 2010; 104:691-697.
53. Lipfert B, Standl T, Dullmann J, Helmchen U, Schulte am Esch J, Lorke DE. Histology and ultrastructure of liver and kidney following blood exchange with ultrapurified, polymerised bovine hemoglobin in comparison with hydroxyethyl starch. Lab Invest 1999; 79:573-582.
54. Dickenmann M, Oettl T, Mihatsch MJ. Osmotic nephrosis: acute kidney injury with accumulation of proximal tubular lysosomes due to administration of exogenous solutes. Am J Kidney Dis 2008; 51:491-503.
55. Heyman SN, Lieberthal W, Rogiers P, Bonventre JV. Animal models of acute tubular necrosis. Curr Opin Crit Care 2002; 8:526-534.
56. Kato N, Yuzawa Y, Kosugi T, Hobo A, Sato W, Miwa Y et al. The E-selectin ligand basigin/CD147 is responsible for neutrophil recruitment in renal ischemia/reperfusion. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009; 20:1565-1576.
57. Kwon O, Hong SM, Ramesh G. Diminished NO generation by injured endothelium and loss of macula densa nNOS may contribute to sustained acute kidney injury after ischemia-reperfusion. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2009; 296:F25-33.
58. Thuillier R, Favreau F, Celhay O, Macchi L, Milin S, Hauet T. Thrombin inhibition during kidney ischemia-reperfusion reduces chronic graft inflammation and tubular atrophy. Transplantation 2010; 90:612-621.
59. Versteilen AMG, Blaauw N, Di Maggio F, Groeneveld ABJ, Sipkema P, Musters RJP et al. rho-Kinase inhibition reduces early microvascular leukocyte accumulation in the rat kidney following ischemia-reperfusion injury: roles of nitric oxide and blood flow. Nephron Exp Nephrol 2011; 118:e79-86.
60. Doi K, Leelahavanichkul A, Yuen PST, Star RA. Animal models of sepsis and sepsis-induced kidney injury. J Clin Invest 2009; 119:2868-2878.
61. Ishikawa K, May CN, Gobe G, Langenberg C, Bellomo R. Pathophysiology of septic acute kidney injury: a different view of tubular injury. Contrib Nephrol 2010; 165:18-27.
62. Langenberg C, Wan L, Egi M, May CN, Bellomo R. Renal blood flow in experimental septic acute renal failure. Kidney Int 2006; 69:1996-2002.
63. Langenberg C, Wan L, Egi M, May CN, Bellomo R. Renal blood flow and function during recovery from experimental septic acute kidney injury. Intensive Care Med 2007; 33:1614-1618.
64. Wan L, Yang N, Hiew CY, Schelleman A, Johnson L, May C et al. An assessment of the accuracy of renal blood flow estimation by Doppler ultrasound. Intensive Care Med 2008; 34:1503-1510.
65. Le Dorze M, Legrand M, Payen D, Ince C. The role of the microcirculation in acute kidney injury. Curr Opin Crit Care 2009; 15:503-508.
66. Molitoris BA, Sandoval RM. Multiphoton imaging techniques in acute kidney injury. Contrib Nephrol 2010; 165:46-53.
67. Bragadottir G, Redfors B, Nygren A, Sellgren J, Ricksten SE. Low-dose vasopressin increases glomerular filtration rate, but impairs renal oxygenation in post-cardiac surgery patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2009; 53:1052-1059.
68. Bagshaw SM, Uchino S, Bellomo R, Morimatsu H, Morgera S, Schetz M et al. Septic acute kidney injury in critically ill patients: clinical characteristics and outcomes. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 2:431-439.
69. Lerolle N, Nochy D, Guerot E, Bruneval P, Fagon JY, Diehl JL et al. Histopathology of septic shock induced acute kidney injury: apoptosis and leukocytic infiltration. Intensive Care Med 2010; 36:471-478.
70. Kim M, Park SW, Kim M, D'Agati VD, Lee HT. Isoflurane activates intestinal sphingosine kinase to protect against renal ischemia-reperfusion- induced liver and intestine injury. Anesthesiology 2011; 114:363-373.
71. Grenz A, Hong JH, Badulak A, Ridyard D, Luebbert T, Kim JH et al. Use of a hanging-weight system for isolated renal artery occlusion. J Vis Exp 2011.
72. Kong HY, Zhu SM, Wang LQ, He Y, Xie HY, Zheng SS. Sevoflurane protects against acute kidney injury in a small-size liver transplantation model. Am J Nephrol 2010; 32:347-355.
73. Ganopolsky JG, Castellino FJ. A protein C deficiency exacerbates inflammatory and hypotensive responses in mice during polymicrobial sepsis in a cecal ligation and puncture model. Am J Pathol 2004; 165:1433-1446.
74. Hollenberg SM, Dumasius A, Easington C, Colilla SA, Neumann A, Parrillo JE. Characterization of a hyperdynamic murine model of resuscitated sepsis using echocardiography. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:891-895.
75. Wang J, Du Z, Zhang W, Han B, Peng C, Chen N. Post liver transplantation acute kidney injury in a rat model of syngeneic orthotopic liver transplantation. Lab Invest 2011; 91:1158-1169.
76. Yeung KK, Richir M, Hanrath P, Teerlink T, Kompanowska-Jezierska E, Musters RJP et al. Infrarenal aortic-clamping after renal ischaemia aggravates acute renal failure. Eur J Clin Invest 2011; 41:605-615.
77. Li X, Liu M, Bedja D, Thoburn C, Gabrielson K, Racusen L et al. Acute renal venous obstruction is more detrimental to the kidney than arterial occlusion: implication for murine models of acute kidney injury. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2012; 302:F519-525.
78. Aravindan N, Natarajan M, Shaw AD. Fenoldopam inhibits nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa B in a rat model of surgical ischemic acute renal failure. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2006; 20:179-186.
79. Murphy GJ, Lin H, Coward RJ, Toth T, Holmes R, Hall D et al. An initial evaluation of post-cardiopulmonary bypass acute kidney injury in swine. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2009; 36:849-855.
80. Zhu J, Yin R, Shao H, Dong G, Luo L, Jing H. N-acetylcysteine to ameliorate acute renal injury in a rat cardiopulmonary bypass model. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2007; 133:696-703.
81. Prowle JR, Molan MP, Hornsey E, Bellomo R. Cine phase-contrast magnetic resonance imaging for the measurement of renal blood flow. Contrib Nephrol 2010; 165:329-336.
82. Schneider A, Johnson L, Goodwin M, Schelleman A, Bellomo R. Bench-to-bedside review: contrast enhanced ultrasonography - a promising technique to assess renal perfusion in the ICU. Crit Care 2011; 15:157.
83. Prowle JR, Ishikawa K, May CN, Bellomo R. Renal blood flow during acute renal failure in man. Blood Purif 2009; 28:216-225.
84. Alejandro V, Scandling JD Jr, Sibley RK, Dafoe D, Alfrey E, Deen W et al. Mechanisms of filtration failure during postischemic injury of the human kidney. A study of the reperfused renal allograft. J Clin Invest 1995; 95:820-831.
85. Schrier RW, Wang W. Acute renal failure and sepsis. N Engl J Med 2004; 351:159-169.
86. Loutzenhiser R, Griffin K, Williamson G, Bidani A. Renal autoregulation: new perspectives regarding the protective and regulatory roles of the underlying mechanisms. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006; 290:R1153-1167.
87. Abstracts of Sepsis 2011. Beijing, China. October 26-28, 2011. Crit Care 2011; 15 (Suppl 3):P1-46.
88. Kusudo K, Ishii K, Rahman M, Aki Y, Miyatake A, Kosaka H et al. Blood flow-dependent changes in intrarenal nitric oxide levels during anesthesia with halothane or sevoflurane. Eur J Pharmacol 2004; 498:267-273.
89. Kim M, Kim M, Park SW, Pitson SM, Lee HT. Isoflurane protects human kidney proximal tubule cells against necrosis via sphingosine kinase and sphingosine-1-phosphate generation. Am J Nephrol 2010; 31:353-362.
90. Eger EI 2nd, Koblin DD, Bowland T, Ionescu P, Laster MJ, Fang Z et al. Nephrotoxicity of sevoflurane versus desflurane anesthesia in volunteers. Anesth Analg 1997; 84:160-168.
91. Wagener G, Brentjens TE. Anesthetic concerns in patients presenting with renal failure. Anesthesiol Clin 2010; 28:39-54.
92. Hsing CH, Chou W, Wang JJ, Chen HW, Yeh CH. Propofol increases bone morphogenetic protein-7 and decreases oxidative stress in sepsis-induced acute kidney injury. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2011; 26:1162-1172.
93. Song XM, Wang YL, Li JG, Wang CY, Zhou Q, Zhang ZZ et al. Effects of propofol on pro-inflammatory cytokines and nuclear factor kappaB during polymicrobial sepsis in rats. Mol Biol Rep 2009; 36:2345-2351.
94. Mazze RI. Methoxyflurane revisited: tale of an anesthetic from cradle to grave. Anesthesiology 2006; 105:843-846.
95. Grindlay J, Babl FE. Review article: efficacy and safety of methoxyflurane analgesia in the emergency department and prehospital setting. Emerg Med Australas 2009; 21:4-11.
96. Annat G, Viale JP, Bui XB, Hadj AO, Benzoni D, Vincent M et al. Effect of PEEP ventilation on renal function, plasma renin, aldosterone, neurophysins and urinary ADH, and prostaglandins. Anesthesiology 1983; 58:136-141.
97. Rymarz A, Serwacki M, Rutkowski M, Pakosinski K, Grodzicki M, Patkowski W et al. Prevalence and predictors of acute renal injury in liver transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 2009; 41:3123-3125.
98. Mayes S, Ferrone M. Fentanyl HCl patient-controlled ion-tophoretic transdermal system for the management of acute postoperative pain. Ann Pharmacother 2006; 40:2178-2186.
99. Latta KS, Ginsberg B, Barkin RL. Meperidine: a critical review. Am J Ther 2002; 9:53-68.
100. Craig RG, Hunter JM. Neuromuscular blocking drugs and their antagonists in patients with organ disease. Anaesthesia 2009; 64 (Suppl 1):55-65.
101. Li Y, Zhu S, Yan M. Combined general/epidural anesthesia (ropivacaine 0.375%) versus general anesthesia for upper abdominal surgery. Anesth Analg 2008; 106:1562-1565.
102. Guay J. The benefits of adding epidural analgesia to general anesthesia: a metaanalysis. J Anesth 2006; 20:335-340.
103. Bellomo R, Auriemma S, Fabbri A, D'Onofrio A, Katz N, McCullough PA et al. The pathophysiology of cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury (CSA-AKI). Int J Artif Organs 2008; 31:166-178.
104. Cooper WA, O'Brien SM, Thourani VH, Guyton RA, Bridges CR, Szczech LA et al. Impact of renal dysfunction on outcomes of coronary artery bypass surgery: results from the Society of Thoracic Surgeons National Adult Cardiac Database. Circulation 2006; 113:1063-1070.
105. Grant MC, Kon Z, Joshi A, Christenson E, Kallam S, Burris N et al. Is aprotinin safe to use in a cohort at increased risk for thrombotic events: results from a randomized, prospective trial in off-pump coronary artery bypass. Ann Thorac Surg 2008; 86:815-822.
106. Henry D, Carless P, Fergusson D, Laupacis A. The safety of aprotinin and lysine-derived antifibrinolytic drugs in cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis. CMAJ 2009; 180:183-193.
107. Fergusson DA, Hebert PC, Mazer CD, Fremes S, MacAdams C, Murkin JM et al. A comparison of aprotinin and lysine analogues in high-risk cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med 2008; 358:2319-2331.
108. Leyvi G, Nelson O, Yedlin A, Pasamba M, Belamarich PF, Nair S et al. A comparison of the effect of aprotinin and epsilon-aminocaproic acid on renal function in children undergoing cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2011; 25:402-406.
109. DeSantis SM, Toole JM, Kratz JM, Uber WE, Wheat MJ, Stroud MR et al. Early postoperative outcomes and blood product utilization in adult cardiac surgery: the post-aprotinin era. Circulation 2011; 124:S62-69.
110. European Medicines Agency. Press release: European Medicines Agency recommends lifting suspension of aprotinin. From: http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/ index.jsp?curl=pages/home/Home-Page.jsp&mid=. Accessed April 2012.
111. Doddakula K, Al-Sarraf N, Gately K, Hughes A, Tolan M, Young V et al. Predictors of acute renal failure requiring renal replacement therapy post cardiac surgery in patients with preoperatively normal renal function. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2007; 6:314-318.
112. Gandhi GY, Nuttall GA, Abel MD, Mullany CJ, Schaff HV, Williams BA et al. Intraoperative hyperglycemia and perioperative outcomes in cardiac surgery patients. Mayo Clin Proc 2005; 80:862-866.
113. Wigfield CH, Lindsey JD, Munoz A, Chopra PS, Edwards NM, Love RB. Is extreme obesity a risk factor for cardiac surgery? An analysis of patients with a BMI > or = 40. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2006; 29:434-440.
114. Engelman DT, Adams DH, Byrne JG, Aranki SF, Collins JJ Jr, Couper GS et al. Impact of body mass index and albumin on morbidity and mortality after cardiac surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1999; 118:866-873.
115. Mentzer RM Jr, Oz MC, Sladen RN, Graeve AH, Hebeler RF Jr, Luber JM Jr et al. Effects of perioperative nesiritide in patients with left ventricular dysfunction undergoing cardiac surgery: the NAPA Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49:716-726.
116. Sezai A, Hata M, Niino T, Yoshitake I, Unosawa S, Wakui S et al. Results of low-dose human atrial natriuretic peptide infusion in nondialysis patients with chronic kidney disease undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: the NU-HIT (Nihon University working group study of low-dose HANP Infusion Therapy during cardiac surgery) trial for CKD. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 58:897-903.
117. Amar D, Zhang H, Park B, Heerdt PM, Fleisher M, Thaler HT. Inflammation and outcome after general thoracic surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2007; 32:431-434.
118. Magovern JA, Singh D, Teekell-Taylor L, Scalise D, McGregor W. Preoperative clinical factors are important determinants of the inflammatory state before and after heart surgery. ASAIO J 2007; 53:316-319.
119. Agirbasli M, Nguyen ML, Win K, Kunselman AR, Clark JB, Myers JL et al. Inflammatory and hemostatic response to cardiopulmonary bypass in pediatric population: feasibility of seriological testing of multiple biomarkers. Artif Organs 2010; 34:987-995.
120. Dieleman JM, van Paassen J, van Dijk D, Arbous MS, Kalkman CJ, Vandenbroucke JP et al. Prophylactic corticosteroids for cardiopulmonary bypass in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 5:CD005566.
121. Chawla LS, Seneff MG, Nelson DR, Williams M, Levy H, Kimmel PL et al. Elevated plasma concentrations of IL-6 and elevated APACHE II score predict acute kidney injury in patients with severe sepsis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 2:22-30.
122. Simmons EM, Himmelfarb J, Sezer MT, Chertow GM, Mehta RL, Paganini EP, et al. Plasma cytokine levels predict mortality in patients with acute renal failure. Kidney Int 2004; 65:1357-1365.
123. Bakris GL, Lass N, Gaber AO, Jones JD, Burnett JC Jr. Radiocontrast medium-induced declines in renal function: a role for oxygen free radicals. Am J Physiol 1990; 258:F115-120.
124. Baliga R, Ueda N, Walker PD, Shah SV. Oxidant mechanisms in toxic acute renal failure. Am J Kidney Dis 1997; 29:465-477.
125. Prabhu A, Sujatha DI, Ninan B, Vijayalakshmi MA. Neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin as a biomarker for acute kidney injury in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting with cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Vasc Surg 2010; 24:525-531.
126. Burns KE, Chu MW, Novick RJ, Fox SA, Gallo K, Martin CM et al. Perioperative N-acetylcysteine to prevent renal dysfunction in high-risk patients undergoing cabg surgery: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005; 294:342-350.
127. Haase M, Haase-Fielitz A, Bagshaw SM, Reade MC, Morgera S, Seevenayagam S et al. Phase II, randomized, controlled trial of high-dose N-acetylcysteine in high-risk cardiac surgery patients. Crit Care Med 2007; 35:1324-1331.
128. Liu KD, Thompson BT, Ancukiewicz M, Steingrub JS, Douglas IS, Matthay MA et al. Acute kidney injury in patients with acute lung injury: impact of fluid accumulation on classification of acute kidney injury and associated outcomes. Crit Care Med 2011; 39:2665-2671.
129. Levey AS, Coresh J, Balk E, Kausz AT, Levin A, Steffes MW et al. National Kidney Foundation practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139:137-147.
130. Bonventre JV. Pathophysiology of acute kidney injury: roles of potential inhibitors of inflammation. Contrib Nephrol 2007; 156:39-46.
131. Devarajan P. Proteomics for the investigation of acute kidney injury. Contrib Nephrol 2008; 160:1-16.
132. Heller F, Frischmann S, Grunbaum M, Zidek W, Westhoff TH. Urinary calprotectin and the distinction between prerenal and intrinsic acute kidney injury. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2011; 6:2347-2355.
133. Moore E, Bellomo R, Nichol A. Biomarkers of acute kidney injury in anesthesia, intensive care and major surgery: from the bench to clinical research to clinical practice. Minerva Anestesiol 2010; 76:425-440.
134. Taes Youri EC, Wuyts B, Boelaert JR, De Vriese AS, Delanghe JR. Prohepcidin accumulates in renal insufficiency. Clin Chem Lab Med 2004; 42:387-389.
135. Devarajan P, Krawczeski CD, Nguyen MT, Kathman T, Wang Z, Parikh CR. Proteomic identification of early biomarkers of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery in children. Am J Kidney Dis 2010; 56:632-642.
136. Haase M, Bellomo R, Devarajan P, Schlattmann P, Haase-Fielitz A. Accuracy of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in diagnosis and prognosis in acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2009; 54:1012-1024.
137. Moore E, Bellomo R. Novel biomarkers of acute kidney injury: ready for clinical application? Curr Opin Crit Care 2010; Epub ahead of print.
138. Capuano F, Goracci M, Luciani R, Gentile G, Roscitano A, Benedetto U et al. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin levels after use of mini-cardiopulmonary bypass system. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2009; 9:797-801.
139. Wagener G, Gubitosa G, Wang S, Borregaard N, Kim M, Lee HT. Increased incidence of acute kidney injury with aprotinin use during cardiac surgery detected with urinary NGAL. Am J Nephrol 2008; 28:576-582.
140. Haase M, Devarajan P, Haase-Fielitz A, Bellomo R, Cruz D, Wagener G et al. The outcome of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin-positive subclinical acute kidney injury: a multicenter pooled analysis of prospective studies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 57:1752-1761.
141. Nickolas TL, Schmidt-Ott KM, Canetta P, Forster C, Singer E, Sise M et al. Diagnostic and prognostic stratification in the emergency department using urinary biomarkers of nephron damage: a multicenter prospective cohort study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 59:246-255.
142. Prowle JR, Ostland V, Calzavacca P, Licari E, Ligabo EV, Echeverri JE et al. Greater increase in urinary hepcidin predicts protection from acute kidney injury after cardiopulmonary bypass. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2012; 27:595-602.
143. Bagshaw SM, Delaney A, Haase M, Ghali WA, Bellomo R. Loop diuretics in the management of acute renal failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Resusc 2007; 9:60-68.
144. Bellomo R, Chapman M, Finfer S, Hickling K, Myburgh J. Low-dose dopamine in patients with early renal dysfunction: a placebo-controlled randomised trial. Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society (ANZICS) Clinical Trials Group. Lancet 2000; 356:2139-2143.
145. Gonzales DA, Norsworthy KJ, Kern SJ, Banks S, Sieving PC, Star RA et al. A meta-analysis of N-acetylcysteine in contrast-induced nephrotoxicity: unsupervised clustering to resolve heterogeneity. BMC Med 2007; 5:32.
146. Nigwekar SU, Kandula P. N-acetylcysteine in cardiovascular-surgery- associated renal failure: a meta-analysis. Ann Thorac Surg 2009; 87:139-147.
147. Heringlake M, Heinze H, Schubert M, Novak Y, Guder J, Kleinebrahm M et al. A perioperative infusion of sodium bicarbonate does not improve renal function in cardiac surgery patients: a prospective observational cohort study. Crit Care 2012; 16:R156.
148. McGuinness S, Parke RL, Bellomo R, Van Haren F. Sodium bicarbonate infusion to reduce cardiac surgery associated acute kidney injury; a phase II multi-centre, double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185:A6857.
149. Haase M, Haase-Fielitz A, Bellomo R, Devarajan P, Story D, Matalanis G et al. Sodium bicarbonate to prevent increases in serum creatinine after cardiac surgery: a pilot double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med 2009; 37:39-47.
150. Brienza N, Giglio MT, Marucci M, Fiore T. Does perioperative hemodynamic optimization protect renal function in surgical patients? A meta-analytic study. Crit Care Med 2009; 37:2079-2090.
151. Gonzalez-Fajardo JA, Mengibar L, Brizuela JA, Castrdeza J, Vaquero-Puerta C. Effect of postoperative restrictive fluid therapy in the recovery of patients with abdominal vascular surgery. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2009; 37:538-543.
152. Rahbari NN, Zimmermann JB, Schmidt T, Koch M, Weigand MA, Weitz J. Meta-analysis of standard, restrictive and supplemental fluid administration in colorectal surgery. Br J Surg 2009; 96:331-341.
153. Prowle JR, Chua HR, Bagshaw SM, Bellomo R. Clinical review: volume of fluid resuscitation and the incidence of acute kidney injury - a systematic review. Crit Care 2012; 16:230.
154. Endre ZH, Westhuyzen J. Early detection of acute kidney injury: emerging new biomarkers. Nephrology (Carlton) 2008; 13:91-98.
155. Song YR, Lee T, You SJ, Chin HJ, Chae DW, Lim C et al. Prevention of acute kidney injury by erythropoietin in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: a pilot study. Am J Nephrol 2009; 30:253-260.
156. Bagshaw SM, Uchino S, Bellomo R, Morimatsu H, Morgera S, Schetz et al. Timing of renal replacement therapy and clinical outcomes in critically ill patients with severe acute kidney injury. J Crit Care 2009; 24:129-140.
157. Garcia-Fernandez N, Perez-Valdivieso JR, Bes-Rastrollo M, Vives M, Lavilla J, Herreros J et al. Timing of renal replacement therapy after cardiac surgery: a retrospective multicenter Spanish cohort study. Blood Purif 2011; 32:104-111.
158. Prowle JR, Echeverri JE, Ligabo EV, Ronco C, Bellomo R. Fluid balance and acute kidney injury. Nat Rev Nephrol 2010; 6:107-115.
159. Bagshaw SM, Berthiaume LR, Delaney A, Bellomo R. Continuous versus intermittent renal replacement therapy for critically ill patients with acute kidney injury: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2008; 36:610-617.
160. Uchino S, Bellomo R, Kellum JA, Morimatsu H, Morgera S, Schetz MR et al. Patient and kidney survival by dialysis modality in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. Int J Artif Organs 2007; 30:281-292.
161. Bellomo R, Cass A, Cole L, Finfer S, Gallagher M, Lo S et al. Intensity of continuous renal-replacement therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2009; 361:1627-1638.
162. Palevsky PM, Zhang JHo, O'Connor TZ, Chertow GM, Crowley ST, Choudhury D et al. Intensity of renal support in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. N Engl J Med 2008; 359:7-20.
163. Prowle JR, Schneider A, Bellomo R. Clinical review: optimal dose of continuous renal replacement therapy in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 2011; 15:207.
164. Uchino S, Bellomo R, Morimatsu H, Morgera S, Schetz M, Tan I et al. Discontinuation of continuous renal replacement therapy: a post hoc analysis of a prospective multicenter observational study. Crit Care Med 2009; 37:2576-2582.
165. Carmichael P, Carmichael AR. Acute renal failure in the surgical setting. ANZ J Surg 2003; 73:144-153.
166. Coca SG, Yusuf B, Shlipak MG, Garg AX, Parikh CR. Long-term risk of mortality and other adverse outcomes after acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2009; 53:961-973.
167. Waikar SS, Winkelmayer WC. Chronic on acute renal failure: long-term implications of severe acute kidney injury. JAMA 2009; 302:1227-1229.
168. Venugopal V, Laing CiM, Ludman A, Yellon DM, Hausenloy D. Effect of remote ischemic preconditioning on acute kidney injury in nondiabetic patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a secondary analysis of 2 small randomized trials. Am J Kidney Dis 2010; 56:1043-1049.
169. Reid F, Lobo DN, Williams RN, Rowlands BJ, Allison SP. (Ab)normal saline and physiological Hartmann's solution: a randomized double-blind crossover study. Clin Sci 2003; 104:17-24.
170. Shaw AD, Bagshaw SM, Goldstein SL, Scherer LA, Duan M, Schermer CR et al. Major complications, mortality, and resource utilization after open abdominal surgery: 0.9% saline compared to Plasma-Lyte. Ann Surg 2012; 255:821-829.