Semi-Presidentialism: Sub-Types And Democratic Performance

Semi-Presidentialism: Sub-Types And Democratic Performance

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 1-224

  Elgie, Robert ^a  

^a DUBLIN CITY UNIVERSITY   (Ireland)

Author keywords

Democracy; Legislature; President; Prime minister; Semi presidentialism

Indexed keywords

EID: 84870207513     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199585984.001.0001     Document Type: Book

References (238)

1. Acemoglu, Darren, Simon Johnson, James A. Robinson, and Pierre Yared (2008), 'Income and Democracy', American Economic Review, vol. 98, no. 3, pp. 808-42.
2. Aghrout, Ahmed (2008), 'Parliamentary and Presidential Elections in Mauritania, 2006 and 2007', Electoral Studies, vol. 27, pp. 385-90.
3. Akokpari, John, and Elisabete Azevedo (2007), 'Post-Conflict Elections in Africa: Liberia and Guinea-Bissau in Comparative Perspective', African Journal of International Affairs, vol. 10, nos. 1 & 2, pp. 73-92.
4. Alesina, Alberto, Arnaud Devleeschauwer, William Easterly, Sergio Kurlat, and Romain Wacziarg (2003), 'Fractionalization', Journal of Economic Growth, vol. 8, no. 155, pp. 155-94.
5. Almond, Gabriel A., and Sidney Verba (1963), The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations, Boston: Little, Brown.
6. Altman, David, and Aníbal Pérez-Liñán (2002), 'Assessing the Quality of Democracy: Freedom, Competitiveness and Participation in Eighteen Latin American Countries', Democratization, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 85-100.
7. Amorim Neto, Octavio (2003), 'Portugal: Changing Patterns of Delegation and Accountability under the President's Watchful Eyes', in Kaare Strøm, Wolfgang C. Müller, and Torbjörn Bergman (eds.), Delegation and Accountability in Parliamentary Democracies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 552-72.
8. Amorim Neto, Octavio, Marina Costa Lobo (2009), 'Portugal's Semi-Presidentialism (Re)Considered: An Assessment of the President's Role in the Policy Process, 1976-2006', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 48,pp. 234-55.
9. Andreev, Svetlozar A. (2008), 'Semi-Presidentialism in Bulgaria: The Cyclical Rise of Informal Powers and Individual Political Ambitions in a "Dual Executive"', in Robert Elgie and Sophia Moestrup (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism in Central and Eastern Europe, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 32-50
10. Araújo, António de (2003), 'El Presidente de la República en la Evolución del Sistema Político de Portugal', in António Barreto, Braulio Gómez, and Pedro Magalhäes (eds.), Portugal: Democracia y Sistema Político, Siglo XXI de España Editores, pp. 83-112.
11. Augel, Johannes, and Peter Meyns (2002), 'Processos de Transição na África Lusófona', Soronda. Revista de Estudos Guineenses, no. 5, pp. 7-50.
12. Avillez, Maria João (1996), Soares. Democracia, Lisbon: Público.
13. Azevedo, Elisabete (2009), 'O semipresidencialismo na Guiné-Bissau: inocente ou culpado da instabilidade política?', in Marina Costa Lobo and Octavio Amorim Neto (eds.), O Semipresidencialismo nos Países de Língua Portuguesa, Lisbon: Imprensa de Ciências Sociais, pp. 139-70.
14. Azevedo, Elisabete, Lia Nijzink (2007), 'Semi-Presidentialism in Guinea-Bissau. The Lesser of Two Evils?', in Robert Elgie and Sophia Moestrup (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism Outside Europe, London: Routledge, pp. 137-60.
15. Barro, Robert J. (1999), 'Determinants of Democracy', Journal of Political Economy, vol. 107, no. 6, pp. S158-83.
16. Barroso, José Durão (1986), 'Les conflits entre le Président portugais et la majorité parlemaentaire de 1979 à 1983', in Maurice Duverger (ed.), Les régimes semipresidentiels, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, pp. 237-55.
17. Bathily, Abdoulaye (1992), Mai 68 à Dakar ou la révolte universitaire et la démocratie, Paris: Karthala.
18. Baudais, Virginie, and Grégory Chauzal (2006), 'Les partis politiques et l'«indépendance partisane» d'Amadou Toumani Touré', Politique africaine, no. 104, pp. 61-80.
19. Bauer, Gretchen (2001), 'Namibia in the First Decade of Independence: How Democratic?', Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 33-55.
20. Beck, Nathaniel, and Jonathan N. Katz (1995), 'What to Do (and Not to Do) with Time-Series Cross-Section Data', American Political Science Review, vol. 89, no. 3, pp. 634-47.
21. Belmessous, Hacène (2000), 'Sénégal: L'inévitable alternance', Politique Internationale, no. 87 Spring, pp. 131-44.
22. Berg-Schlosser, Dirk (2004), 'Indicators of Democracy and Good Governance as Measures of the Quality of Democracy in Africa: A Critical Appraisal', Acta Politica, vol. 39, pp. 248-78.
23. Bernhard, Michael (2005), Institutions and the Fate of Democracy: Germany and Poland in the Twentieth Century, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
24. Bernhard, Michael, Christopher Reenock, and Timothy Nordstrom (2004), 'The Legacy of Western Overseas Colonialism on Democratic Survival', International Studies Quarterly, vol. 48, pp. 225-50.
25. Beuve-Méry, Hubert (1987), 'De la dictature temporaire au régime semi-présidentiel', in Dominique Colas and Claude Emeri (eds.), Droit, institutions et systèmes politiques. Mélanges en hommage à Maurice Duverger, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, pp. 533-40.
26. Birch, Sarah (2008), 'Ukraine: Presidential Power, Veto Strategies and Democratisation', in Robert Elgie and Sophia Moestrup (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism in Central and Eastern Europe, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 219-38.
27. Blanco de Morais, Carlos (1997), 'As metamorfoses do semipresidencialismo portugues', Revista Jurídica, no. 22, pp. 141-59.
28. Blondel, Jean (1960), 'Constitutional Changes in Former French Black Africa', Parliamentary Affairs, vol. 14, pp. 507-17.
29. Blondel, Jean (1984), 'Dual Leadership in the Contemporary World: A Step Towards Executive and Regime Stability?', in Dennis Kavanagh and Gillian Peele (eds.), Comparative Government and Politics. Essays in Honour of S. E. Finer, London: Heinemann, pp. 73-91.
30. Boilley, Pierre (2002), 'Présidentielles maliennes: L'enracinement démocratique?', Politique africaine, no. 86, pp. 171-82.
31. Braga da Cruz, Manuel (1994), 'O Presidente da República na génese e evolução do sistema de governo português', Análise Social, vol. 29, nos. 125-6, pp. 237-65.
32. Brown, Ian Richard (2000), 'Clinging to Democracy: Assessing the Russian Legislative-Executive Relationship Under Boris Yeltsin's Constitution', Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 1 May, available at: (accessed 7 October 2010).
33. Campinos, Jorge (1986), 'Le cas portugais de 1979 à 1983: le Président opposé à la majorité', in Maurice Duverger (ed.), Les régimes semi-presidentiels, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, pp. 209-36.
34. Cardoso, Carlos (1995), 'A Transicão Democrática na Guiné-Bissau: Um Parto Dificil', Lusotopie, pp. 259-84.
35. Carey, John M. (2000), 'Parchment, Equilibria, and Institutions', Comparative Political Studies, vol. 33, nos. 6-7, pp. 735-61.
36. Chaisty, Paul (2008), 'The Legislative Effects of Presidential Partisan Powers in Post-Communist Russia', Government and Opposition, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 424-53.
37. Chaisty, Paul, Petra Schleiter (2002), 'Productive but Not Valued: The Russian State Duma, 1994-2001', Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 701-24.
38. Chan, Steve (2006), 'Taiwan in 2005: Strategic Interaction in Two-Level Games', Asian Survey, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 63-8.
39. Chandler, Andrea (2001), 'Presidential Veto Power in Post-Communist Russia, 1994-1998', Canadian Journal of Political Science, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 487-516.
40. Cheibub, José Antonio (2007), Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, and Democracy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
41. Cheibub, José Antonio, Svitlana Chernykh (2007), 'Constitutions and Democratic Performance in Semi-Presidential Democracies', Japanese Journal of Political Science, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 269-303.
42. Cheibub, José Antonio, Svitlana Chernykh (2009), 'Are Semi-Presidential Constitutions Bad for Democratic Performance?', Constitutional Political Economy, vol. 20, nos. 3-4, pp. 202-29.
43. Cheibub, José Antonio, Svitlana Chernykh, Adam Przeworski, and Sebastian M. Saiegh (2004), 'Government Coalitions and Legislative Success under Presidentialism and Parliamentarism', British Journal of Political Science, vol. 34, pp. 565-87.
44. Cheibub, José Antonio, Svitlana Chernykh, Jennifer Gandhi, and James Raymond Vreeland (2010), 'Democracy and Dictatorship Revisited', Public Choice, DOI 10.1007/s11127-009-9491-2.
45. Clark, Andrew F. (1995), 'From Military Dictatorship to Democracy: The Democratization Process in Mali', Journal of Third World Studies, vol. 12, pp. 201-22.
46. Clark, David H., and Timothy Nordstrom (2005), 'Democratic Variants and Democratic Variance: How Domestic Constraints Shape Interstate Conflict', Journal of Politics, vol. 67, no. 1, pp. 250-70.
47. Clark, John F. (2008), The Failure of Democracy in the Republic of Congo, Boulder, CO?: Lynne Rienner.
48. Collier, David, and Robert Adcock (1999), 'Democracy and Dichotomies: A Pragmatic Approach to Choices about Concepts', Annual Review of Political Science, vol. 2, no. 537, pp. 537-65.
49. Collier, Paul, Anke Hoeffler, and Dominic Rohner (2009), 'Beyond Greed and Grievance: Feasibility and Civil War', Oxford Economic Papers, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 1-27.
50. Colton, Timothy J., and Cindy Skach (2005), 'The Russian Predicament', Journal of Democracy, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 113-26.
51. Committee on Evaluation of USAID Democracy Assistance Programs (2008), Improving Democracy Assistance: Building Knowledge Through Evaluations and Research, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
52. Copper, John F. (2008), 'Taiwan's Failed President', Asian Affairs, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 179-92.
53. Coulibaly, Abdou Latif (2003), Wade, un opposant au pouvoir. L'Alternance piégee, Dakar: Les Éditions Sentinelles.
54. Creevey, Lucy, Paul Ngomo, and Richard Vengroff (2005), 'Party Politics and Different Paths to Democratic Transitions: A Comparison of Benin and Senegal', Party Politics, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 471-93.
55. Cumming, Duncan Cameron (1953), 'The Disposal of Eritrea', Middle East Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 18-32.
56. de Haan, Jakob, Jan-Egbert Sturm, and Geert Beekhuis (1999), 'The Weak Government Thesis: Some New Evidence', Public Choice, vol. 101, pp. 163-76.
57. Desai, Raj M., Anders Olofsgård, and Tarik M. Yousef (2003), 'Democracy, Inequality, and Inflation', American Political Science Review, vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 391-406.
58. Diamond, Larry (1996), 'Is the Third Wave Over?', Journal of Democracy, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 20-37.
59. Diamond, Larry, Leonardo Morlino (2004), 'The Quality of Democracy: An Overview', Journal of Democracy, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 20-31.
60. Diamond, Larry, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (1995), 'Introduction: What Makes for Democracy?', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Politics in Developing Countries. Comparing Experiences with Democracy, 2nd ed., Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, pp. 1-66.
61. Diarra, Abdoulaye (2010), Démocratie et droit constitutionnel dans les pays francophones d'Afrique noire. Le cas du Mali depuis 1960, Paris: Karthala.
62. Diarra, Eloi (1995), 'Constitution et état de droit au Mali', Revue juridique et politique, indépendance et coopération, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 252-84.
63. Diaw, Moussa (1998), 'Elections et pouvoir tribal en Mauritanie', Politique africaine, no. 71, pp. 156-64.
64. Diop, Abdoul Aziz (2009), Une succession en démocratie. Les Sénégalais face à l'inattendu, Paris: L'Harmattan.
65. Diop, Momar-Coumba (2006), 'Le Sénégal à la croisée des chemins', Politique africaine, no. 104, pp. 103-26.
66. Diop, Momar-Coumba, Mamadou Diouf, and Aminata Diaw (2000), 'Le baobab a été déraciné. L'alternance au Sénégal', Politique africaine, no. 78, pp. 157-79.
67. Docking, Timothy W. (1997), 'Mali. The Roots of Democracy's "Success"', L'Afrique politique 1997, pp. 191-212.
68. Dunning, Thad (2008), 'Improving Causal Inference. Strengths and Limitations of Natural Experiments', Political Research Quarterly, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 282-93.
69. Duverger, Maurice (1967), Les Partis politiques, 6th edn., Paris: Armand Colin.
70. Duverger, Maurice (1970), Institutions politiques et Droit constitutionnel, 11th edn., Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
71. Duverger, Maurice (1978), Echec au roi, Paris: Albin Michel.
72. Duverger, Maurice (1980), 'A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 165-87.
73. Elgie, Robert (1998), 'The Classification of Democratic Regime Types: Conceptual Ambiguity and Contestable Assumptions', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 219-38.
74. Elgie, Robert (1999), 'The Politics of Semi-Presidentialism', in Robert Elgie (ed.), Semi-Presidentialism in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-21.
75. Elgie, Robert (2007), 'Varieties of Semi-Presidentialism and Their Impact on Nascent Democracies', Taiwan Journal of Democracy, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 53-71.
76. Elgie, Robert (2010a), 'Semi-Presidentialism: An Increasingly Common Constitutional Choice', in Robert Elgie, Sophia Moestrup, and Yu-Shan Wu (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism and Democracy, London: Palgrave.
77. Elgie, Robert (2010b), 'Semi-Presidentialism, Cohabitation and the Collapse of Electoral Democracies, 1990-2008', Government and Opposition, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 29-49.
78. Elgie, Robert, Francesco Cavatorta (2010), 'The Impact of Semi-Presidentialism on Governance in the Palestinian Authority', Parliamentary Affairs, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 22-40.
79. Elgie, Robert, Iain McMenamin (2008), 'Semi-Presidentialism and Democratic Performance', in Japanese Journal of Political Science, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 323-40.
80. Elgie, Robert, Petra Schleiter (2011), 'Variation in the Durability of Semi-Presidential Democracies', in Robert Elgie, Sophia Moestrup, and Yu-Shan Wu (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism and Democracy, London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 42-60.
81. Elgie, Robert, Sophia Moestrup (2008), 'Semi-Presidentialism: A Common Regime Type, But One That Should Be Avoided?', in Robert Elgie and Sophia Moestrup (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism in Central and Eastern Europe, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 1-13.
82. Fall, Alioune Badara (2006), 'La démocratie sénégalaise à l'épreuve de l'alternance', Afrilex, no. 5, pp. 3-63.
83. Fall, Ismaïla Madior (2009), Évolution constitutionnelle du Sénégal. De la veille de l'indépendance aux élections de 2007, Paris: Karthala.
84. Fatton, Robert (2000), 'Constitution without Constitutionalism: Haiti and the Vagaries of Democratization', New West Indian Guide, vol. 74, nos. 1/2, pp. 5-32.
85. Fish, M. Steven (2001), 'The Inner Asian Anomaly: Mongolia's Democratization in Comparative Perspective', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 34, pp. 323-38.
86. Fish, M. Steven, Matthew Kroenig (2006), 'Diversity, Conflict and Democracy: Some Evidence from Eurasia and East Europe', Democratization, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 828-42.
87. Forrest, Joshua (2002), 'Guinea-Bissau', in Patrick Chabal et al. (eds.), A History of Postcolonial Lusophone Africa, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 236-63.
88. Forrest, Joshua (2005), 'Democratization in a Divided Urban Political Culture. Guinea-Bissau', in Leonardo A. Villalón and Peter VonDoepp (eds.), The Fate of Africa's Democratic Experiments: Elites and Institutions, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 246-66.
89. Foweraker, Joe, and Roman Krznaric (2003), 'Differentiating the democratic performance of the West', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 42, pp. 313-40.
90. Freedom House (2010), Freedom in the World 2010. Erosion of Freedom Intensifies. Selected Data from Freedom House's Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties, available at: (accessed 5 March 2010).
91. Freeman, Mark (2000), 'Constitutional Frameworks and Fragile Democracies: Choosing Between Parliamentarism, Presidentialism and Semi-Presidentialism', Pace International Law Review, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 253-82.
92. Frison-Roche, François (2005), Le 'modèle semi-présidentiel' comme instrument de la transition en Europe post-communiste. Bulgarie, Lituanie, Macédoine, Pologne, Roumanie et Slovénie, Brussels: Bruylant.
93. Galvan, Dennis (2001), 'Political Turnover and Social Change in Senegal', Journal of Democracy, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 51-62.
94. Gaye, Mandiaye (2010), Le Sénégal sous Abdoulaye Wade: Banqueroute, corruption et liberticide, Paris: L'Harmattan.
95. Geddes, Barbara (1999), 'What Do We Know About Democratization after Twenty Years?', Annual Review of Political Science, vol. 2, pp. 115-44.
96. Gerring, John, Strom C. Thacker, and Carola Moreno (2009), 'Are Parliamentary Systems Better?', Comparative Political Studies, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 327-59.
97. Herspring, Dale R. (2000), 'Civil-Military Relations in Post-Communist Poland: Problems in the Transition to a Democratic Polity', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 71-100.
98. Hesseling, Gerti (1985), Histoire politique du Sénégal. Institutions, droit et société, Paris: Karthala.
99. Horowitz, Donald L. (1990), 'Comparing Democratic Systems', Journal of Democracy, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 73-9.
100. Horowitz, Donald L. (1993), 'Democracy in Divided Societies', Journal of Democracy, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 18-38.
101. Huang, Thomas Weishing (2006), 'The President Refuses to Cohabit: Semi-Presidentialism in Taiwan', Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 375-402.
102. Huber, Evelyne, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and John D. Stephens (1993), 'The Impact of Economic Development on Democracy', Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 71-86.
103. Huskey, Eugene (1996), 'Democracy and Institutional Design in Russia', Demokratizatsiya, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 453-73.
104. Ibrahim, Jibrin, and Abdoulaye Niandou Souley (1998), 'The Rise to Power of an Opposition Party: The MNSD in Niger Republic', in Adebayo O. Olukoshi (ed.), The Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa, Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, pp. 144-70.
105. Indridason, Indridi H. (2005), 'A Theory of Coalitions and Clientelism: Coalition Politics in Iceland, 1945-2000', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 44, pp. 439-64.
106. Issa Abdourhamane, Boubacar (1996), Crise institutionnelle et démocratisation au Niger, Bordeaux: Centre d'Etude d'Afrique Noire.
107. Jalali, Carlos (2010), 'The President is not a Passenger: Portugal's Evolving Semi-Presidentialism', in Robert Elgie, Sophia Moestrup, and Yu-Shan Wu (eds.), Semi-Presidentialsm and Democracy, London: Palgrave.
108. Jasiewicz, Krzysztof (1997), 'Poland: Wałęsa's Legacy to the Presidency', in Ray Taras (ed.), Postcommunist Presidents, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 130-67.
109. Karasimeonov, Georgi (1996), 'The Legislature in Post-Communist Bulgaria', Journal of Legislative Studies, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 40-59.
110. Keefer, Philip (2007), 'Clientelism, Credibility, and the Policy Choices of Young Democracies', American Journal of Political Science, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 804-21.
111. Kirschke, Linda (2007), 'Semipresidentialism and the Perils of Power-Sharing in Neopatrimonial States', Comparative Political Studies, vol. 40, no. 11, pp. 1372-94.
112. Kono, Daniel Y. (2006), 'Optimal Obfuscation: Democracy and Trade Policy Transparency', American Political Science Review, vol. 100, no. 3, pp. 369-84.
113. Kopstein, Jeffrey S., and David A. Reilly (2000), 'Geographic Diffusion and the Transformation of the Postcommunist World', World Politics, vol. 53,pp. 1-37.
114. Kouvibidilia, Gaston-Jonas (2000), Histoire du multipartisme au Congo-Brazzaville: Les débuts d'une crise attendue 1992-1993, Paris: L'Harmattan.
115. Kristinsson, Gunnar Helgi (1999), 'Iceland', in Robert Elgie (ed.), Semi-Presidentialism in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 86-105.
116. Kucera, Ondrej (2006), 'Is Taiwan a Presidential System?', China Perspectives, no. 66: (accessed 5 November 2009).
117. Lake, David A. (2009), 'Open Economy Politics: A Critical Review', Review of International Organizations, vol. 4, pp. 219-44.
118. Laski, Harold J. (1944), 'The Parliamentary and Presidential Systems', Public Administration Review, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 347-59.
119. Leeson, Peter T., and Andrea M. Dean (2009), 'The Democratic Domino Theory: An Empirical Investigation', American Journal of Political Science, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 533-51.
120. Lijphart, Arend (1999), Patterns of Democracy. Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries, New Haven: Yale University Press.
121. Lijphart, Arend (2004), 'Constitutional Design for Divided Societies', Journal of Democracy, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 96-109.
122. Lin, Jih-Wen (2011), 'The Rules of Electoral Competition and the Accountability of Semi-Presidential Governments', in Robert Elgie, Sophia Moestrup, and Yu-Shan Wu (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism and Democracy, London: Palgrave, pp. 61-80.
123. Linz, Juan J. (1990a), 'The Perils of Presidentialism', Journal of Democracy, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 51-69.
124. Linz, Juan J. (1990b), 'The Virtues of Parliamentarism', Journal of Democracy, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 84-91.
125. Linz, Juan J. (1994), 'Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a Difference?', in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), The Failure of Presidential Democracy. Comparative Perspectives, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 3-87.
126. Linz, Juan J. (1997), 'Introduction: Some Thoughts on Presidentialism in Postcommunist Europe', in Ray Taras (ed.), Postcommunist Presidents, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
127. Linz, Juan J., Alfred Stepan (1996), Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe, Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press.
128. Lipset, Seymour Martin (1959), 'Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy', American Political Science Review, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 69-105.
129. Lissouck, Félix François (2004), 'L'évolution politique et institutionnelle récente au Mali: Les leçons d'une expérience démocratique', Revue juridique et politique des états francophones, vol. 58, no.1, pp. 21-42.
130. Lopes, Pedro Santana, and José Durão Barroso (1980), Sistema de Governo e Sistema Partidário, Lisbon: Livraria Bertrand.
131. Magone, José M. (2000), 'Portugal. The Rationale of Democratic Regime Building', in Wolfgang C. Müller and Kaare Strøm (eds.), Coalition Governments in Western Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 529-58.
132. Maignan, Jean-Claude (2000), La difficile démocratisation au Niger, Paris: Centre des hautes études sur l'Afrique et l'Asie modernes.
133. Mainwaring, Scott (1993), 'Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy. The Difficult Combination', Comparative Political Studies, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 198-228.
134. Mainwaring, Scott, Matthew S. Shugart (1997), 'Juan Linz, Presidentialism, and Democracy: A Critical Appraisal', Comparative Politics, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 449-71.
135. March, James G., and Johan P. Olsen (1984), 'The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life', American Political Science Review, vol. 78, no. 3, pp. 734-49.
136. Marshall, Monty G., and Keith Jaggers (2009), Polity IV Project. Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800-2007. Dataset Users' Manual, Center for Systemic Peace (/polity).
137. Massicotte, Louis (2009), 'Mapping the Road to Democracy. The National Conference of Mali 29 July to 12 August 1991', Paper presented at the Conference "Changer la Donne Politique. Nouveaux Processus Constituants", available at: (accessed 11 May 2010).
138. Matsuzato, Kimitaka (2005), 'Semipresidentialism in Ukraine: Institutionalist Centrism in Rampant Clan Politics', Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 45-60.
139. Mazo, Eugene (2005), Constitutional Roulette: The Russian Parliament's Battles with the President Over Appointing a Prime Minister, CDDRL Working Papers, no. 35, available at: (accessed 7 October 2010).
140. Mbow, Penda (2008), 'Senegal: The Return of Personalism', Journal of Democracy, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 156-69.
141. McMenamin, Iain (2008), 'Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland', in Robert Elgie and Sophia Moestrup (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism in Central and Eastern Europe, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 120-37.
142. Metcalf, Lee Kendall (2000), 'Measuring Presidential Power', Comparative Political Studies, vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 660-85.
143. Millard, Frances (1994), 'The Polish Parliamentary Election of September, 1993', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 295-313.
144. Millard, Frances (2008), 'Executive-Legislative Relations in Poland, 1991-2005: Institutional Relations in Transition', Journal of Legislative Studies, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 367-93.
145. Miranda, Jorge (1984), 'O sistema semipresidencial português entre 1976 e 1979', Revista da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade de Lisboa, vol. 25, pp. 193-220.
146. Mission d'Observation électorale de l'Union européenne en Mauritanie (2007), Elections municipales, législatives 2006 et présidentielles 2007. Rapport final, (accessed 21 September 2009).
147. Moestrup, Sophia (1999), 'The Role of Actors and Institutions: The Difficulties of Democratic Survival in Mali and Niger', Democratization, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 171-86.
148. Moestrup, Sophia (2007), 'Semi-Presidentialism in Young Democracies. Help or Hindrance?', in Robert Elgie and Sophia Moestrup (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism Outside Europe, London: Routledge, pp. 30-55.
149. Moestrup, Sophia (2011), 'Haiti: Semi-Presidentialism in a Fractured Society', in Robert Elgie, Sophia Moestrup, and Yu-Shan Wu (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism and Democracy, London: Palgrave.
150. Morais, Isaltino A., José Mário Ferreira de Almeida, and Ricardo Leite Pinto (1984), O Sistema de Governo semipresidencial. O Caso Português, Lisbon: Notícias.
151. Moreira, Vital (2005), 'Evolução Democrático em Portugal (1974-2002): Traços e Impasse', in Vital Moreira (ed.), Crise e Reforma Da Democracia. V Curso Livre de História Contemporânea, Lisboa, 11 a 16 Novembro de 2002, organizado por Fundação Mário Soares e Instituto de História Contemporânea de Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon: Ediçoes Colibri, pp. 11-34.
152. Morgan-Jones, Edward, and Petra Schleiter (2004), 'Governmental Change in a President-Parliamentary Regime: The Case of Russia 1994-2003', Post-Soviet Affairs, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 132-63.
153. Morlino, Leonardo (2004), '"Good" and "Bad" Democracies: How to Conduct Research into the Quality of Democracy', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 5-27.
154. M'Paka, Albert (2005), Démocratie et administration au Congo-Brazzaville, Paris: L'Harmattan.
155. M'Paka, Albert (2007), Démocratie et vie politique au Congo-Brazzaville, Paris: L'Harmattan.
156. Müller, Wolfgang C. (1992), 'Austrian Governmental Institutions: Do They Matter?', West European Politics, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 99-131.
157. Müller, Wolfgang C. (1999), 'Austria', in Robert Elgie (ed.), Semi-Presidentialism in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 24-50.
158. Munck, Gerardo L., and Jay Verkuilen (2002), 'Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices', Comparative Political Studies, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 5-34.
159. Murray, D. Christie (1875), 'A Scrap of Crimean History', The Gentleman's Magazine, vol. 14, Jan.-June, pp. 171-83.
160. Nalewajko, Ewa, and Włodzimierz Wesołowski (2007), 'Five Terms of the Polish Parliament, 1989-2005', Journal of Legislative Studies, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 59-82.
161. N'Diaye, Boubacar (2009), 'To "Midwife" - and Abort - A Democracy: Mauritania's Transition from Military Rule, 2005-2008', Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 129-52.
162. Negretto, Gabriel L. (2006), 'Minority Presidents and Democratic Performance in Latin America', Latin American Politics and Society, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 63-92.
163. Niang, Mody (2004), Me Wade et l'Alternance: le rêve brisé de Sopi, Paris: L'Harmattan.
164. Niang, Mody (2006), Qui est cet homme qui dirige le Sénégal?, Paris: L'Harmattan.
165. Nóbrega, Álvaro (2003), 'Desejo de 'Cambança': o Processo Eleitoral de 1999', Soronda. Revista de Estudos Guineenses, no. 6, pp. 7-82.
166. Nogueira Alcalá, Humberto (1986), El Regimen Semipresidencial. ¿Una Nueva Forma de Gobierno Democrático?, Santiago: Andante.
167. Norris, Pippa (2008), Driving Democracy. Do Power-Sharing Institutions Work?, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
168. Novais, António Jorge Reis (2007), Sistema de Governo da Guine'Bissau: na Constitução e na pratica, Dissertação de Mestrado em Ciências Jurídico-Politicas, Faculdade de Direito, Universidade de Lisboa.
169. Nzouankeu, Jacques Mariel (1993), 'The Role of the National Conference in the Transition to Democracy in Africa: The Cases of Benin and Mali', Issue: A Journal of Opinion, vol. 21, no. 1/2, pp. 44-50.
170. O'Loughlin, John, Michael D. Ward, Corey L. Lofdahl, Jordin S. Cohin, David S. Brown, David Reilly, Kristian S. Gleditch, and Michael Shin (1998), 'The Diffusion of Democracy, 1946-1994', Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 545-74.
171. O'Neil, Patrick (1993), 'Presidential Power in Post-Communist Europe: The Hungarian Case in Comparative Perspective', Journal of Communist Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 177-201.
172. Opello, Walter C. (1990), 'The Transition to Democracy and the Constitutional Settlement as Causes of Political Instability in Post-Authoritarian Portugal', Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 77-94.
173. Ostheimer, Andrea E. (2001), 'The Structural Crisis in Guinea-Bissau's Political System', African Security Review, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 1-8.
174. Pasquino, Gianfranco (2007), 'The Advantages and Disadvantages of Semi-Presidentialism: A West European Perspective', in Robert Elgie and Sophia Moestrup (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism Outside Europe, London: Routledge, pp. 14-29.
175. Peceny, Mark (1999), 'Forcing Them To Be Free', Political Research Quarterly, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 549-82.
176. Pereira, André Gonçalves (1984), O Semipresidencialismo em Portugal, Lisbon: Ática.
177. Pierce, Roy (1991), 'The Executive Divided Against Itself: Cohabitation in France, 1986-1988', Governance, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 270-94.
178. Pimont, Yves (1993), 'La Constitution de la République de Mali', Revue juridique et politique, indépendance et coopération, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 462-91.
179. Plümper, Thomas, and Vera A. Troeger (2007), 'Efficient Estimation of Time-Invariant and Rarely Changing Variables in Finite Sample Panel Analyses with Unit Fixed Effects', Political Analysis, vol. 15, pp. 124-39.
180. Power, Timothy J., and Mark J. Gasiorowski (1997), 'Institutional Design and Democratic Consolidation in the Third World', Comparative Political Studies, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 123-55.
181. Price, Don K. (1943), 'The Parliamentary and Presidential Systems', Public Administration Review, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 317-34.
182. Pridham, Geoffrey (2005), Designing Democracy: EU Enlargement and Regime Change in Post-Communist Europe, Palgrave: Macmillan.
183. Pringle, Robert (2006), 'Mali's Unlikely Democracy', Wilson Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 30-9.
184. Protsyk, Oleh (2003), 'Troubled Semi-Presidentialism: Stability of the Constitutional System and Cabinet in Ukraine', Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 1077-95.
185. Protsyk, Oleh (2004), 'Ruling with Decrees: Presidential Decree Making in Russia and Ukraine', Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 637-60.
186. Protsyk, Oleh (2005), 'Prime Ministers' Identity in Semi-Presidential Regimes: Constitutional Norms and Cabinet Formation Outcomes', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 44, pp. 721-48.
187. Protsyk, Oleh (2006), 'Intra-Executive Competition between President and Prime Minister: Patterns of Institutional Conflict and Cooperation under Semi-presidentialism', Political Studies, vol. 54, no. 219, pp. 219-44.
188. Przeworski, Adam, Michael E. Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub, and Fernando Limongi (2000), Democracy and Development. Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
189. Pugačiauskas, Vykintas (1999), 'Semi-Presidential Institutional Models and Democratic Stability: Comparative Analysis of Lithuania and Poland', Lithuanian Political Science Yearbook 1909, pp. 1-26.
190. Raynal, Jean-Jacques (1993), Les institutions politiques du Niger, Saint-Maur: Sépia.
191. Reilly, Benjamin (2000), 'Democracy, Ethnic Fragmentation, and Internal Conflict: Confused Theories, Faulty Data, and the "Crucial Case" of Papua New Guinea', International Security, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 162-85.
192. Reilly, Benjamin (2011), 'Semi-Presidentialism and Democratic Development in East Asia', in Robert Elgie, Sophia Moestrup, and Yu-Shan Wu (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism and Democracy, London: Palgrave, pp. 117-33.
193. Reiter, Dan, and Erik R. Tilman (2002), 'Public, Legislative, and Executive Constraints on the Democratic Initiation of Conflict', Journal of Politics, vol. 64, no. 3, pp. 810-26.
194. Remington, Thomas F. (2001), 'The Evolution of Executive-Legislative Relations in Russia since 1993', Slavic Review, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 499-520.
195. Remington, Thomas F. (2008), 'Patronage and the Party of Power: President-Parliament Relations Under Vladimir Putin', Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 60, no. 6, pp. 959-87.
196. Roper, Steven D. (2002), 'Are All Semipresidential Regimes the Same? A Comparison of Premier-Presidential Comparison Regimes', Comparative Politics, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 253-72.
197. Rudebeck, Lars (2001), On Democracy's Sustainability. Transition in Guinea-Bissau, Sida Studies, no. 4, Gothenburg: Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency.
198. Salgado de Matos, Luís (1992), 'O sistema político português e a Comunidade Europeia', Análise Social, vol. 27, nos. 118-19, pp. 773-87.
199. Samuels, David (2007), 'Separation of Powers', in Carles Boix and Susan C. Stokes (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 703-26.
200. Samuels, David, Matthew Shugart (2010), Presidents, Parties, Prime Ministers: A Framework for Analysis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (all chapters available at (accessed 22 July 2009)).
201. Sanford, George (1993), 'Delay and Disappointment: The Fully Free Polish Election of 27 October 1991', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 107-18.
202. Sartori, Giovanni (1994), 'Neither Presidentialism Nor Parliamentarism', in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), The Failure of Presidential Democracy. Comparative Perspectives, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 106-18.
203. Sartori, Giovanni (1997), Comparative Constitutional Engineering: An Inquiry into Structures, Incentives and Outcomes, 2nd edn., London: Macmillan.
204. Schiller, Arthur A. (1953), 'Eritrea: Constitution and Federation with Ethiopia', American Journal of Comparative Law, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 375-83.
205. Schleiter, Petra, and Edward Morgan-Jones (2009), 'Review Article: Citizens, Presidents and Assemblies: The Study of Semi-Presidentialism beyond Duverger and Linz', British Journal of Political Science, vol. 39, no. 871, pp. 871-92.
206. Seck, Mamadou (2006), Les scandales politiques sous la présidence d'Abdoulaye Wade, Paris: L'Harmattan.
207. Sedelius, Thomas (2006), The Tug-of-War between Presidents and Prime Ministers. Semi-Presidentialism in Central and Eastern Europe, Örebro Studies in Political Science 15, Örebro universitet, Sweden.
208. Shoesmith, Dennis (2003), 'Timor-Leste: Divided Leadership in a Semi-Presidential System', Asian Survey, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 231-52.
209. Shoesmith, Dennis (2007), 'Timor-Leste: Semi-Presidentialism and the Democratic Transition in a New, Small State', in Robert Elgie and Sophia Moestrup (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism Outside Europe, London: Routledge, pp. 219-36.
210. Shugart, Matthew Soberg (1993), 'Of Presidents and Parliaments', East European Constitutional Review, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 30-2.
211. Shugart, Matthew Soberg (2005), 'Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns', French Politics, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 323-51.
212. Shugart, Matthew Soberg John M. Carey (1992), Presidents and Assemblies. Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
213. Siaroff, Alan (2003), 'Comparative Presidencies: The Inadequacy of the Presidential, Semi-Presidential and Parliamentary Distinction', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 287-312.
214. Sidibé, Doudou (2006), Démocratie et alternance politique au Sénégal, Paris: L'Harmattan.
215. Silva, António E. Duarte (2006/2007), 'O Constitucionalismo da Guiné-Bissau (1973-2005)', Direito e Cidadania, vol. 8, nos. 25/26, pp. 63-100.
216. Skach, Cindy (2005), Borrowing Constitutional Designs. Constitutional Law in Weimar Germany and the French Fifth Republic, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
217. Smith, Herbert Arthur (1923), Federalism in North America: A Comparative Study of Institutions in the United States and Canada, Clark, NJ: The Lawbook Exchange Ltd.
218. Smith, Zeric Kay (2001), 'Mali's Decade of Democracy', Journal of Democracy, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 73-9.
219. Stepan, Alfred, and Cindy Skach (1993), 'Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation. Parliamentarism versus Presidentialism', World Politics, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 1-22.
220. Stock, Maria José (1986), 'O centrismo político em Portugal: evolução do sistema de partidos, génese do «Bloco Central» e análise dos dois parceiros da coligação', Análise Social, vol. 21, no. 85, pp. 45-82.
221. Strom, Kaare (1990), Minority Government and Majority Rule, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
222. Thiam, Assane (2007), '«Une Constitution, ça se revise!» Relativisme constitutionnel et état de droit au Sénégal', Politique africaine, no. 108, pp. 145-53.
223. Thomas, Melissa A., and Oumar Sissokho (2005), 'Liaison Legislature: The Role of the National Assembly in Senegal', Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 97-117.
224. Tirera, Lamine (2006), Abdou Diouf: biographie politique et style de gouvernement, Paris: L'Harmattan.
225. Troxel, Tiffany A. (2003), Parliamentary Power in Russia, 1994-2001: President vs Parliament, London: Palgrave.
226. Van Der Meer Krok Paszkowska, Ania (1999), 'Poland', in Robert Elgie (ed.), Semi-Presidentialism in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 170-92.
227. Villalón, Leonardo A. (1994), 'Democratizing a (Quasi) Democracy: The Senegalese Elections of 1993', African Affairs, vol. 93, no. 371, pp. 163-93.
228. Villalón, Leonardo A., Abdourahmane Idrissa (2005), 'The Tribulations of a Successful Transition. Institutional Dynamics and Elite Rivalry in Mali', in Leonardo A. Villalón and Peter VonDoepp (eds.), The Fate of Africa's Democratic Experiments. Elites and Institutions, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 49-73.
229. Villalón, Leonardo A. (2005), 'Repetitive Breakdowns and a Decade of Experimentation. Institutional Choices and Unstable Democracy in Niger', in Leonardo A. Villalón and Peter Von Doepp (eds.), The Fate of Africa's Democratic Experiments. Elites and Institutions, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 27-48.
230. Wilson, Woodrow (1884), 'Committee or Cabinet Government?', Overland Monthly, January, series 2, vol. 3, pp. 17-33.
231. Wing, Susanna D. (2008), Constructing Democracy in Transitioning Societies of Africa. Constitutionalism and Deliberation in Mali, London: Palgrave.
232. Woldendorp, Jaap, Hans Keman, and Ian Budge (2002), Party Government in 48 Democracies (1945-1998): Composition-Duration-Personnel, Dordrecht: Kluwer.
233. Wright, Gordon (1950), The Reshaping of French Democracy, 2nd edn., New York: Reynal and Hitchcock.
234. Wu, Yu-Shan (2005), 'Appointing the Prime Minister under Incongruence: Taiwan in Comparison with France and Russia', Taiwan Journal of Democracy, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 103-32.
235. Wu, Yu-Shan (2007), 'Semi-Presidentialism - Easy to Choose, Difficult to Operate: The Case of Taiwan', in Robert Elgie and Sophia Moestrup (eds.), Semi-Presidentialism Outside Europe, London: Routledge, pp. 201-18.
236. Wyrzykowski, Mirosław, and Agnieszka Cielen (2006), 'Poland - Semi-Presidentialism or "Rationalised Parliamentarianism"?', European Constitutional Law Review, vol. 2, no. 253, pp. 253-67.
237. Zielonka, Jan, and Alex Pravda eds. (2001), Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe. Volume 2. International and Transnational Factors, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
238. Zisenwine, Daniel (2007), 'Mauritania's Democratic Transition: A Regional Model for Political Reform?', Journal of North African Studies, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 481-99.