Democracy, ethnic fragmentation, and internal conflict confused theories, faulty data, and the "crucial case" of papua new guinea

International Security

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 162-185

  Reilly, Benjamin ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1942428043     PISSN: 01622889     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/016228800560552     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. See Renée de Nevers, "Democratization and Ethnie Conflict," in Michael Brown, ed., Ethnie Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993).
2. This process has naturally encouraged a considerable literature dealing with democratic transitions and their consequences, and the relationship between institutional choices and the consolidation of democracy. See, for example, Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions to Democracy: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Africa (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1988);
3. Diamond, Linz, and Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1989); Diamond, Linz, and Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1989); Samuel P. Huntington, Tlie Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy, rev. ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Larry Diamond and Mark F. Plattner, eds., The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and Larry Diamond, Developing Democracy: Towards Consolidation (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
4. Peter Wallenstecn and Margareta Sollenberg, "Armed Conflict, 1989-99," Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 37, No. 5 (September 2000).
5. For a policy-focused approach to these issues, see Peter Harris and Ben Reilly, eds., Democracy and Deep-Rooted Conflict: Options for Negotiators (Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 1998).
6. Alvin Rabushka and Kenneth A. Shepsle, Politics in Plural Societies: A Theory of Democratic Instability (Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1972).
7. John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government (New York: Liberal Arts Press, 195811861]), p. 230.
8. Gabriel Almond, "Comparative Political Systems," Journal of Politics, Vol. 18 (1956), pp. 391-409.
9. See, for example, David A. Low, Eclipse of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 272-273.
10. Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1971), pp. 109, 111.
11. Rabushka and Shepsle, Politics in Plural Societies, pp. 177-178.
12. Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), p. 56.
13. G. Bingham Powell, Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability, and Violence (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 44-46.
14. Jan-Erik Lane and Svante Ersson, Comparative Political Economy (London: Pinter, 1990), p. 138; and Axel Hadenius, Democracy and Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 116-117.
15. Paul Collier, The Economics of Civil War (Washington, D.C.: World Bank Monograph, 1998), p. 3.
16. Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, "On Economic Causes of Civil War," Oxford Economic Papers, Vol. 50, No. 4 (1998), p. 571.
17. See Adrian Karatnycky, "The 1998 Freedom House Survey: The Decline of Illiberal Democracy," Journal of Democracy, Vol. 10, No. 1 (January 1999), pp. 117-118; and Freedom House, Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties, 1998-1999 (New York: Freedom House), pp. 9-10.
18. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 37.
19. Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr., "India: The Dilemmas of Diversity," in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Democracy (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), p. 72.
20. Harold Crouch, "Democratic Prospects in Indonesia," Asian Journal of Political Scic?ice, Vol. 1, No. 2 (1993), p. 83.
21. The presence of broad, aggregative, and multiethnic political parties appears to be a crucial facilitating condition for democracy in many divided societies. Sec Benjamin Reilly, Democracy in Divided Societies: Electoral Engineering for Conflict Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
22. Jan-Erik Lane and Svante Ersson, Comparative Politics: An Introduction and a Neie Approach (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), p. 204.
23. See Harry Eckstein, "Case Study and Theory in Political Science," in Eckstein, Regarding Politics: Essays on Political Theory, Stability, and Change (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 117-176.
24. See Charles L. Taylor and Michael C. Hudson, World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1972); and Taylor and David A. Jodice, World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983).
25. R.J. May, "Managing the Ethnic/Religious/Cultural Challenge to National Security," paper presented at the Tenth Asia-Pacific Roundtable, Kuala Lumpur, 1996, p. 10.
26. Anthony J. Regan, "Limiting State Action: Comparative Perspectives on Constitutionalism, Participation, and Civil Society in Papua New Guinea," paper presented at the Waigani Seminar, Port Moresby, 1995, p. 9.
27. David Hegarty, "The Political Parties," in A. Amarshi, K. Good, and R. Mortimer, eds., Development and Dependency: The Political Economy of Papua Neio Guinea (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 188.
28. Minority Rights Group, World Directory of Minorities (London: Minority Rights Group International, 1997), p. 682.
29. Tony Deklin, "Culture and Democracy in Papua New Guinea: 'Marit Tru or Giaman Marit?'" in R. Crocombe, U. Neemia, A. Ravuvu, and W. vom Busch, eds., Culture and Democracy in the South Pacific (Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1992), p. 35.
30. See I. Hogbin, "Anthropological Definitions," in Peter Ryan, ed., The Encyclopedia of Papua and Nein Guinea (Clayton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press in association with the University of Papua New Guinea, 1973), p. 23.
31. Ralph Premdas, "Ethnicity and Nation Building: The Papua New Guinea Case/' in Michael Howard, ed.. Ethnicity and Nation Building in the Pacific (Tokyo: United Nations University, 1989), p. 246.
32. James Griffin, "Papua New Guinea," in R. Brissenden and J. Griffin, eds.. Modern Asia: Problems and Politics (Milton, Queensland: Jacaranda Press, 1974), pp. 142-143.
33. See Ralph Premdas, "Secessionist Movements in Papua New Guinea," Pacific Affairs, Vol. 50 (1977).
34. Larry Diamond, "Introduction: Persistence, Erosion, Breakdown, and Renewal," in Diamond, Linz, and Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, p. 1.
35. David Lipset, "Papua New Guinea: The Melanesian Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, 19751986," in Diamond, Linz, and Lipset, Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, p. 409.
36. Myron Weiner, "Empirical Democratic Theory," in Weiner and Ergun Ozbudun, eds., Competitive Elections in Developing Countries (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1987), pp. 18-19.
37. Larry Diamond, "Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered," in Gary Marks and Diamond, eds., Reexamining Democracy: Essays in Honor of Seymour Martin Upset (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), p. 127.
38. Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, "Introduction: What Makes for Democracy?" in Diamond, Linz, and Lipset, Politics in Developing Countries, p. 35.
39. Arend Lijphart, Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-six Countries (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999).
40. Huntington, Third Wave, pp. 266-267.
41. See United Nations Development Programme, Human Deivlopment Report, 1997 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
42. For a summary of knowledge to date, see Seymour Martin Lipset, "Economic Development," in Lipset, ed., The Encyclopedia of Democracy (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1995), pp. 350-356. 42. Arend Lijphart, "Multiethnic Democracy," in ibid., p. 853.
43. Milton Esman, Ethnic Politics (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 15.
44. Stephen Levine, "Culture and Conflict in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, and the Federated States of Micronesia," in Michael E. Brown and Sumit Ganguly, eds., Government Policies and Ethnic Relations in the Asia and the Pacific (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1997), p. 479.
45. Gavin Souter, New Guinea: The Last Unknown (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1963), p. 49.
46. See Marie Reay, "Lawlessness in the Papua New Guinea Highlands," in RJ. May and Hank Nelson, eds., Melanesia: Beyond Diversity (Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1982), pp. 630-636.
47. See M. de Lepervanche, "Social Structure," in Ryan, Encyclopedia of Papua and Neio Guinea, p. 1066.
48. Ibid., p. 1065.
49. L.L. Langness, "Political Organization," in Ryan, Encyclopedia of Papua and Neiv Guinea, p. 924.
50. Personal communication with William Standish, Australian National University, September 28, 1996.
51. Personal communication with John Burton, Australian National University, December 24, 1996.
52. The term "primordialism" is usually associated with Clifford Geertz, "The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States," in Geertz, ed., OH Societies and Neiv States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa (New York: Free Press, 1963). For a discussion of this typology in the scholarly literature, see Esman, Ethnic Politics, pp. 9-16.
53. Esman, Ethnic Politics, p. 14.
54. See Premdas, "Ethnicity and Nation Building," p. 246.
55. R.S. Parker and Edward P. Wolfers, "The Context of Political Change," in A.L. Epstein, R.S. Parker, and M. Reay, eds., The Politics of Dependence: Papua New Guinea, 1968 (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1971), p. 16.
56. William Standish, "Papua New Guinea: The Search for Security in a Weak State," in A. Thompson, ed., Papua New Guinea: Issues for Australian Security Planners (Canberra: Australian Defence Studies Centre, Australian Defence Force Academy, 1994), p. 60.
57. Parker and Wolfers, "Context of Political Change," pp. 16-17.
58. See RJ. May, "Micronationalism: What, When, and Why?" in May, ed., Micronatioimlist Movements in Papua Neiv Guinea, Political and Social Change Monograph 1 (Canberra: Department of Political and Social Change, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1982).
59. Scan Domey, Papua Neiv Guinea: People, Politics, and History since 1975 (Sydney: Random House, 1990), p. 310.
60. W. Clifford, L. Morauta, and B. Stuart, Law and Order in Papua Nnu Guinea, Vols, l and 2 (Port Moresby: Institute of National Affairs and Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research, 1984), pp. 94-95.
61. Dorney, Papua Neio Guinea, pp. 310-311.
62. Michael Howard, "Ethnicity and the State in the Pacific," in Howard, Ethnicity and Nation Building, p. 45.
63. Andrew Strathern, "Violence and Political Change in Papua New Guinea," Pacific Studies, Vol. 16, No. 4 (1993), p. 51.
64. Ibid., p. 48.
65. See Sinclair Dinnen, "Violence, Security, and the 1992 Election," in Yaw Saffu, ed., The 1992 PNG Election: Change and Continuity in Electoral Politics (Canberra: Department of Political and Social Change, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, 1996), pp. 77-104; and Bill Standish, "Elections in Simbu: Towards Gunpoint Democracy?" in Saffu, The 1992 PNG Election, pp. 277-322.
66. AU Mazrui, "An African's New Guinea," Neiv Guinea, Vol. 5, No. 3 (1970), pp. 54-55.
67. Regan, "Limiting State Action," p. 9.
68. Horowitz, Ethnic Croups in Conflict, pp. 37-38.
69. See R.J. May, The Changing Role of the Military in Papua Neie Guinea, Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence No. 101 (Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1993), p. 75.
70. See Ben Reilly, "The Alternative Vote and Ethnic Accommodation: New Evidence from Papua New Guinea," Electoral Studies, Vol. 16, No. 1 (1997).
71. See R.J. May and AJ. Regan, eds., Political Decentralization in a New State: The Experience of Provincial Government in Papua Neiv Guinea (Bathurst, New South Wales: Crawford House, 1997).
72. For a detailed discussion of this point, see Ben Reilly, "The Effects of the Electoral System in Papua New Guinea," in Saffu, The 1992 PNG Election.
73. Arend Lijphart, "Electoral Systems, Party Systems, and Conflict Management in Segmented Societies," in R.A. Schreirer, ed., Critical Choices for South Africa: An Agenda for the 1990s (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 9-13.
74. See O. White, Parliament of a Thousand Tribes (Melbourne: Wren, 1972).
75. See, for example, W. Arthur Lewis, Politics in West Africa (London: George Alien and Unwin, 1965), p. 79; Horowitz, Ethnic Croups in Conflict, pp. 365-395; and Arend Lijphart, "The PowerSharing Approach," in J.V. Montville, ed.. Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (New York: Lexington Books, 1991), p. 505. 76. See Reilly, "The Effects of the Electoral System in Papua New Guinea," pp. 62-76.
76. Sec Douglas W. Rae and Michael Taylor, The Analysis of Political Cleavages (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1970).
77. See Atlas Narodov Mira (Moscow: N.N. Miklukho-Maklaya Institute of Ethnography for the Academy of Sciences, Department of Geodesy and Cartography of the State Geological Committee of the USSR, 1964).
78. Numerous other well-regarded scholars have also made use of the Narodov Mira index in their work. Two prominent examples that base some of their analysis on these data are Gary Cox's ac-
79. claimed Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World's Electoral Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); and the work of the influential Harvard economist Dani Rodrik. See, for example, "Where Did AH the Growth Go? External Shocks, Social Conflict, and Growth Collapses," Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 4, No. 4 (1999).
80. Collier and Hoeffler, "On Economic Causes of Civil War," p. 571.
81. Ted Robert Gurr, Minorities at Risk: A Global Vino of Ethnovolitical Conflicts (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1993).
82. Minority Rights Group, World Directory of Minorities.
83. Lane and Ersson, Comparative Politics, p. 204.