Emotion and Cognition Interactions in PTSD: A Review of Neurocognitive and Neuroimaging Studies

Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience

Volumn , Issue SEPTEMBER, 2012, Pages

  Hayes, J P ^a,b   VanElzakker, M B ^c,d   Shin, L M ^c,d  

^a VA BOSTON HEALTHCARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^b BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c TUFTS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Amygdala; Anxiety; Cognitive control; fMRI; Memory; Neuroimaging; Neuropsychology; Threat bias

Indexed keywords

GLUCOCORTICOID;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; COGNITION; CONDITIONING; DECISION MAKING; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG RESPONSE; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; EMOTION; EXPLICIT MEMORY; FEAR; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING; HUMAN; IMAGE ANALYSIS; IMPLICIT MEMORY; MEMORY DISORDER; MENTAL PERFORMANCE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; REVIEW; REWARD; STIMULUS RESPONSE; TASK PERFORMANCE; WORKING MEMORY;

EID: 84867063828     PISSN: 16625145     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2012.00089     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Aikins, D. E., Johnson, D. C., Borelli, J. L., Klemanski, D. H., Morrissey, P. M., Benham, T. L., Southwick, S. M., and Tolin, D. F. (2009). Thought suppression failures in combat PTSD: A cognitive load hypothesis. Behav. Res. Ther. 47, 744-751.
2. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th edition, Text Revision). Washington D.C.
3. Amir, N., McNally, R. J., and Wiegartz, P. S. (1996). Implicit memory bias for threat in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Ther. Res. 20, 625-635.
4. Astur, R. S., St Germain, S. A., Tolin, D., Ford, J., Russell, D., and Stevens, M. (2006). Hippocampus function predicts severity of post-traumatic stress disorder. Cyberpsychol. Behav. 9, 234-240.
5. Attias, J., Bleich, A., Furman, V., and Zinger, Y. (1996). Event-related potentials in post-traumatic stress disorder of combat origin. Biol. Psychiatry 40, 373-381.
6. Aupperle, R. L., Allard, C. B., Grimes, E. M., Simmons, A. N., Flagan, T., Behrooznia, M., Cissell, S. H., Twamley, E. W., Thorp, S. R., and Norman, S. B. (2012). Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation during emotional anticipation and neuropsychological performance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 69, 360-371.
7. Aupperle, R. L., Melrose, A. J., Stein, M. B., and Paulus, M. P. (2012). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology 62, 686-694.
8. Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science 255, 556-559.
9. Bar-Haim, Y., Holoshitz, Y., Eldar, S., Frenkel, T. I., Muller, D., Charney, D. S., Pine, D. S., Fox, N. A., and Wald, I. (2010). Life-threatening danger and suppression of attention bias to threat. Am. J. Psychiatry 167, 694-698.
10. Bardeen, J. R., and Orcutt, H. K. (2011). Attentional control as a moderator of the relationship between posttraumatic stress symptoms and attentional threat bias. J. Anxiety Disord. 25, 1008-1018.
11. Bechara, A., Dolan, S., and Hindes, A. (2002). Decision-making and addiction (part II): Myopia for the future or hypersensitivity to reward? Neuropsychologia 40, 1690-1705.
12. Beck, J. G., Freeman, J. B., Shipherd, J. C., Hamblen, J. L., and Lackner, J. M. (2001). Specificity of Stroop interference in patients with pain and PTSD. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 110, 536-543.
13. Beevers, C. G., Wells, T. T., Ellis, A. J., and McGeary, J. E. (2009). Association of the serotonin transporter gene promoter region (5-HTTLPR) polymorphism with biased attention for emotional stimuli. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 118, 670-681.
14. Boscarino, J. (2008). A prospective study of PTSD and early-age heart disease mortality among Vietnam veterans: implications for surveillance and prevention. Psychosom. Med. 70, 658-676.
15. Brainerd, C., and Reyna, V. (2002). Fuzzy-trace theory and false memory. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 11, 164.
16. Bremner, J. D., Shobe, K. K., and Kihlstrom, J. F. (2000). False memories in women with selfreported childhood sexual abuse: An empirical study. Psychol. Sci. 11, 333-337.
17. Bremner, J. D., Vermetten, E., Schmahl, C., Vaccarino, V., Vythilingam, M., Afzal, N., Grillon, C., and Charney, D. S. (2005). Positron emission tomographic imaging of neural correlates of a fear acquisition and extinction paradigm in women with childhood sexual-abuse-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Med. 35, 791-806.
18. Bremner, J. D., Vermetter, E., Vythilingam, M., Afzal, N., Schmahl, C., Elzinga, B., and Charney, D. (2004). Neural correlates of the classic color and emotional stroop in women with abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 55, 612-620.
19. Bremner, J. D., Vythilingam, M., Vermetten, E., Southwick, S. M., McGlashan, T., Staib, L. H., Soufer, R., and Charney, D. S. (2003). Neural correlates of declarative memory for emotionally valenced words in women with posttraumatic stress disorder related to early childhood sexual abuse. Biol. Psychiatry 53, 879-889.
20. Brennen, T., Dybdahl, R., and Kapidzic, A. (2007). Trauma-related and neutral false memories in war-induced Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Conscious. Cogn. 16, 877-885.
21. Brohawn, K. H., Offringa, R., Pfaff, D. L., Hughes, K. C., and Shin, L. M. (2010). The neural correlates of emotional memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 68, 1023-1030.
22. Bryant, R. A., Felmingham, K. L., Falconer, E. M., Pe Benito, L., Dobson-Stone, C., Pierce, K. D., and Schofield, P. R. (2010). Preliminary evidence of the short allele of the serotonin transporter gene predicting poor response to cognitive behavior therapy in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 67, 1217-1219.
23. Bryant, R. A., and Harvey, A. G. (1995). Processing threatening information in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 104, 537-541.
24. Bryant, R. A., and Harvey, A. G. (1997). Attentional bias in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma. Stress 10, 635-644.
25. Cahill, L., Prins, B., Weber, M., and McGaugh, J. L. (1994). Beta-Adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature 371, 702-704.
26. Cain, C. K., Maynard, G. D., and Kehne, J. H. (2012). Targeting memory processes with drugs to prevent or cure PTSD. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs 21, 1323-1350.
27. Cassiday, K. L., McNally, R. J., and Zeitlin, S. B. (1992). Cognitive processing of trauma cues in rape victims with post-traumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Ther. Res. 16, 283-295.
28. Chemtob, C., Roitblat, H. L., Hamada, R. S., Carlson, J. G., and Twentyman, C. T. (1988). A cognitive action theory of post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Anxiety Disord. 2, 253-275.
29. Chemtob, C. M., Roitblat, H. L., Hamada, R. S., Muraoka, M. Y., Carlson, J. G., and Bauer, G. B. (1999). Compelled attention: The effects of viewing trauma-related stimuli on concurrent task performance in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma. Stress 12, 309-326.
30. Christianson, S. A. (1992). Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review. Psychol. Bull. 112, 284-309.
31. Christianson, S. Ã., and Loftus, E. F. (1991). Remembering emotional events: The fate of detailed information. Cogn. Emot. 5, 81-108.
32. Conway, M. A., and Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychol. Rev. 107, 261-288.
33. Cottencin, O., Vaiva, G., Huron, C., Devos, P., Ducrocq, F., Jouvent, R., Goudemand, M., and Thomas, P. (2006). Directed forgetting in PTSD: A comparative study versus normal controls. J. Psychiatr. Res. 40, 70-80.
34. Dalgleish, T., Moradi, A. R., Taghavi, M. R., Neshat-Doost, H. T., and Yule, W. (2001). An experimental investigation of hypervigilance for threat in children and adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Med. 31, 541-547.
35. Dalgleish, T., Taghavi, R., Neshat-Doost, H., Moradi, A., Canterbury, R., and Yule, W. (2003). Patterns of processing bias for emotional information across clinical disorders: A comparison of attention, memory, and prospective cognition in children and adolescents with depression, generalized anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. 32, 10-21.
36. Daniels, J. K., Bluhm, R. L., and Lanius, R. A. (2012). Intrinsic network abnormalities in posttraumatic stress disorder: Research directions for the next decade. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy.
37. Depue, B., Curran, T., and Banich, M. (2007). Prefrontal regions orchestrate suppression of emotional memories via a two-phase process. Science 317, 215-219.
38. Devineni, T., Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., and Buckley, T. C. (2004). Effect of psychological treatment on cognitive bias in motor vehicle accident-related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. J Anxiety Disord. 18, 211-231.
39. Dickie, E., Brunet, A., Akerib, V., and Armony, J. (2008). An fMRI investigation of memory encoding in PTSD: Influence of symptom severity. Neuropsychologia 46, 1522-1531.
40. Dillon, D. G., Ritchey, M., Johnson, B. D., and LaBar, K. S. (2007). Dissociable effects of conscious emotion regulation strategies on explicit and implicit memory. Emotion 7, 354-365.
41. Dobie, D., Kivlahan, D., Maynard, C., Bush, K., Davis, T., and Bradley, K. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder in female veterans: Association with self-reported health problems and functional impairment. Arch. Intern. Med. 164, 394-400.
42. Dohrenwend, B., Turner, J., Turse, N., Adams, B., Koenen, K., and Marshall, R. (2006). The psychological risks of Vietnam for US veterans: A revisit with new data and methods. Science 313, 979.
43. Dolcos, F., Iordan, A. D., and Dolcos, S. (2011). Neural correlates of emotion-cognition interactions: A review of evidence from brain imaging investigations. J. Cogn. Psychol. 23, 669-694.
44. Dolcos, F., LaBar, K. S., and Cabeza, R. (2004). Interaction between the amygdala and the medial temporal lobe memory system predicts better memory for emotional events. Neuron 42, 855-863.
45. Dolcos, F., and McCarthy, G. (2006). Brain systems mediating cognitive interference by emotional distraction. J. Neurosci. 26, 2072-2079.
46. Easterbrook, J. A. (1959). The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior. Psychol. Rev. 66, 183-201.
47. Ehlers, A., Michael, T., Chen, Y. P., Payne, E., and Shan, S. (2006). Enhanced perceptual priming for neutral stimuli in a traumatic context: A pathway to intrusive memories? Memory 14, 316-328.
48. El Khoury-Malhame, M., Lanteaume, L., Beetz, E. M., Roques, J., Reynaud, E., Samuelian, J. C., Blin, O., Garcia, R., and Khalfa, S. (2011). Attentional bias in post-traumatic stress disorder diminishes after symptom amelioration. Behav. Res. Ther. 49, 796-801.
49. El Khoury-Malhame, M., Reynaud, E., Soriano, A., Michael, K., Salgado-Pineda, P., Zendjidjian, X., Gellato, C., Eric, F., Lefebvre, M. N., Rouby, F., Samuelian, J. C., Anton, J. L., Blin, O., and Khalfa, S. (2011). Amygdala activity correlates with attentional bias in PTSD. Neuropsychologia 49, 1969-1973.
50. Elman, I., Ariely, D., Mazar, N., Aharon, I., Lasko, N. B., Macklin, M. L., Orr, S. P., Lukas, S. E., and Pitman, R. K. (2005). Probing reward function in post-traumatic stress disorder with beautiful facial images. Psychiatry Res. 135, 179-183.
51. Elman, I., Lowen, S., Frederick, B. B., Chi, W., Becerra, L., and Pitman, R. K. (2009). Functional neuroimaging of reward circuitry responsivity to monetary gains and losses in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 66, 1083-1090.
52. Elsesser, K., Sartory, G., and Tackenberg, A. (2004). Attention, heart rate, and startle response during exposure to trauma-relevant pictures: A comparison of recent trauma victims and patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 113, 289-301.
53. Elsesser, K., Sartory, G., and Tackenberg, A. (2005). Initial symptoms and reactions to trauma-related stimuli and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depress. Anxiety 21, 61-70.
54. Engdahl, B., Leuthold, A. C., Tan, H. R., Lewis, S. M., Winskowski, A. M., Dikel, T. N., and Georgopoulos, A. P. (2010). Post-traumatic stress disorder: A right temporal lobe syndrome? J. Neural Eng. 7:066005.
55. Etkin, A., and Wager, T. D. (2007). Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: A meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. Am. J. Psychiatry 164, 1476-1488.
56. Fani, N., Bradley-Davino, B., Ressler, K. J., and McClure-Tone, E. B. (2011). Attention bias in adult survivors of childhood maltreatment with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Ther. Res. 35, 57-67.
57. Fani, N., Tone, E. B., Phifer, J., Norrholm, S. D., Bradley, B., Ressler, K. J., Kamkwalala, A., and Jovanovic, T. (2012). Attention bias toward threat is associated with exaggerated fear expression and impaired extinction in PTSD. Psychol. Med. 42, 533-543.
58. Ferry, B., Roozendaal, B., and McGaugh, J. L. (1999). Role of norepinephrine in mediating stress hormone regulation of long-term memory storage: A critical involvement of the amygdala. Biol. Psychiatry 46, 1140-1152.
59. Fleurkens, P., Rinck, M., and van Minnen, A. (2011). Specificity and generalization of attentional bias in sexual trauma victims suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Anxiety Disord. 25, 783-787.
60. Foa, E. B., Feske, U., Murdock, T. B., Kozak, M. J., and McCarthy, P. R. (1991). Processing of threat-related information in rape victims. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 100, 156-162.
61. Foa, E. B., and Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychol. Bull. 99, 20-35.
62. Freeman, J. B., and Beck, J. G. (2000). Cognitive interference for trauma cues in sexually abused adolescent girls with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 29, 245-256.
63. Friedman, M. J., Resick, P. A., Bryant, R. A., and Brewin, C. R. (2011). Considering PTSD for DSM 5. Depress. Anxiety 28, 750-769.
64. Georgopoulos, A. P., Tan, H. R., Lewis, S. M., Leuthold, A. C., Winskowski, A. M., Lynch, J. K., and Engdahl, B. (2010). The synchronous neural interactions test as a functional neuromarker for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A robust classification method based on the bootstrap. J. Neural Eng. 7:016011.
65. Geracioti Jr, T., Baker, D., Ekhator, N., West, S., Hill, K., Bruce, A., Schmidt, D., Rounds-Kugler, B., Yehuda, R., and Keck Jr, P. (2001). CSF norepinephrine concentrations in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 158, 1227-1230.
66. Gibb, B. E., Johnson, A. L., Benas, J. S., Uhrlass, D. J., Knopik, V. S., and McGeary, J. E. (2011). Children's 5-HTTLPR genotype moderates the link between maternal criticism and attentional biases specifically for facial displays of anger. Cogn. Emot. 25, 1104-1120.
67. Gilbertson, M., Williston, S., Paulus, L., Lasko, N., Gurvits, T., Shenton, M., Pitman, R., and Orr, S. (2007). Configural cue performance in identical twins discordant for posttraumatic stress disorder: theoretical implications for the role of hippocampal function. Biol. Psychiatry 62, 513-520.
68. Golier, J. A., Yehuda, R., Lupien, S. J., Harvey, P. D., Grossman, R., and Elkin, A. (2002). Memory performance in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 159, 1682-1688.
69. Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent-and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 74, 224-237.
70. Grossman, R., Yehuda, R., Golier, J., McEwen, B., Harvey, P., and Maria, N. S. (2006). Cognitive effects of intravenous hydrocortisone in subjects with PTSD and healthy control subjects. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1071, 410-421.
71. Harvey, A. G., Bryant, R. A., and Rapee, R. M. (1996). Preconscious processing of threat in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Ther. Res. 20, 613-623.
72. Hayes, J. P., Hayes, S. M., and Mikedis, A. M. (2012). Quantitative meta-analysis of neural activity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Mood Anxiety Disord. 2:9.
73. Hayes, J. P., LaBar, K. S., McCarthy, G., Selgrade, E., Nasser, J., Dolcos, F., VISN 6 MIRECC, and Morey, R. A. (2011). Reduced hippocampal and amygdala activity predicts memory distortions for trauma reminders in combat-related PTSD. J. Psychiatr. Res. 45, 660-669.
74. Hayes, J. P., Morey, R. A., Petty, C. M., Seth, S., Smoski, M. J., McCarthy, G., and LaBar, K. S. (2010). Staying cool when things get hot: Emotion regulation modulates neural mechanisms of memory encoding. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 4:230.
75. Hoge, C., Terhakopian, A., Castro, C., Messer, S., and Engel, C. (2007). Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with somatic symptoms, health care visits, and absenteeism among Iraq war veterans. Am. J. Psychiatry 164, 150-153.
76. Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., Cotting, D. I., and Koffman, R. L. (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 13-22.
77. Hoge, E. A., Worthington, J. J., Nagurney, J. T., Chang, Y., Kay, E. B., Feterowski, C. M., Katzman, A. R., Goetz, J. M., Rosasco, M. L., and Lasko, N. B. (2012). Effect of acute posttrauma propranolol on PTSD outcome and physiological responses during Script-Driven imagery. CNS Neurosci. Ther. 18, 21-27.
78. Hopper, J. W., Pitman, R. K., Su, Z., Heyman, G. M., Lasko, N. B., Macklin, M. L., Orr, S. P., Lukas, S. E., and Elman, I. (2008). Probing reward function in posttraumatic stress disorder: Expectancy and satisfaction with monetary gains and losses. J. Psychiatr. Res. 42, 802-807
79. Jovanovic, T., Phifer, J. E., Sicking, K., Weiss, T., Norrholm, S. D., Bradley, B., and Ressler, K. J. (2011). Cortisol suppression by dexamethasone reduces exaggerated fear responses in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrino 36, 1540-1552.
80. Kaspi, S. P., McNally, R. J., and Amir, N. (1995). Cognitive processing of emotional information in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Ther. Res. 19, 433-444.
81. Kensinger, E. A. (2007). Negative emotion enhances memory accuracy. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 16, 213.
82. Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., and Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 1048-1060.
83. Kimble, M., Frueh, B. C., and Marks, L. (2009). Does the modified Stroop effect exist in PTSD? Evidence from dissertation abstracts and the peer reviewed literature. J. Anxiety Disord. 23, 650-655.
84. Kleim, B., Ehring, T., and Ehlers, A. (2012). Perceptual processing advantages for trauma-related visual cues in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Med. 42, 173-181.
85. Lang, P. (1977). Physiological assessment of anxiety and fear. Behavioral assessment: New directions in clinical psychology, 178-195.
86. Linnman, C., Zeffiro, T. A., Pitman, R. K., and Milad, M. R. (2011). An fMRI study of unconditioned responses in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Mood Anxiety Disord. 1:8.
87. Litz, B. T., Weathers, F. W., Monaco, V., Herman, D. S., Wulfsohn, M., Marx, B., and Keane, T. (1996). Attention, arousal, and memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma. Stress 9, 497-520.
88. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., and Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 95, 15-20.
89. Mazza, M., Catalucci, A., Mariano, M., Pino, M. C., Tripaldi, S., Roncone, R., and Gallucci, M. (2012). Neural correlates of automatic perceptual sensitivity to facial affect in posttraumatic stress disorder subjects who survived L'Aquila earthquake of April 6, 2009. Brain Imaging Behav.
90. McGaugh, J. L., Cahill, L., and Roozendaal, B. (1996). Involvement of the amygdala in memory storage: Interaction with other brain systems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 93, 13508-13514.
91. McNally, R. J., and Amir, N. (1996). Perceptual implicit memory for trauma-related information in post-traumatic stress disorder. Cogn. Emot. 10, 551-556.
92. McNally, R. J., Amir, N., and Lipke, H. J. (1996). Subliminal processing of threat cues in posttraumatic stress disorder? J. Anxiety Disord. 10, 115-128.
93. McNally, R. J., Kaspi, S. P., Riemann, B. C., and Zeitlin, S. B. (1990). Selective processing of threat cues in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 99, 398-402.
94. McNally, R. J., Lasko, N. B., Macklin, M. L., and Pitman, R. K. (1995). Autobiographical memory disturbance in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Behav. Res. Ther. 33, 619-630.
95. McNally, R. J., Litz, B. T., Prassas, A., Shin, L. M., and Weathers, F. W. (1994). Emotional priming of autobiographical memory in post-traumatic stress disorder. Cogn. Emot. 8, 351-367.
96. McNally, R. J., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Clancy, S. A., and Pitman, R. K. (1998). Directed forgetting of trauma cues in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 107, 596-601.
97. Michael, T., and Ehlers, A. (2007). Enhanced perceptual priming for neutral stimuli occurring in a traumatic context: Two experimental investigations. Behav. Res. Ther. 45, 341-358.
98. Michael, T., Ehlers, A., and Halligan, S. L. (2005). Enhanced priming for trauma-related material in posttraumatic stress disorder. Emotion 5, 103-112.
99. Mickley Steinmetz, K. R., Scott, L. A., Smith, D., and Kensinger, E. A. (2012). The effects of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on the emotion-induced memory trade-off. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 6:34.
100. Milad, M. R., Gold, A. L., Shin, L. M., Handwerger, K., Lasko, N., Orr, S. P., Pitman, R. K., and Rauch, S. L. (2008). Neuroimaging correlates of impaired extinction memory in PTSD. Biol. Psychiatry 63, 178S-178S.
101. Milad, M. R., Pitman, R. K., Ellis, C. B., Gold, A. L., Shin, L. M., Lasko, N. B., Zeidan, M. A., Handwerger, K., Orr, S. P., and Rauch, S. L. (2009). Neurobiological basis of failure to recall extinction memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 66, 1075-1082.
102. Miller, M. W., McKinney, A. E., Kanter, F. S., Korte, K. J., and Lovallo, W. R. (2011). Hydrocortisone suppression of the fear-potentiated startle response and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrino 36, 970-980.
103. Morey, R. A., Dolcos, F., Petty, C. M., Cooper, D. A., Hayes, J. P., LaBar, K. S., and McCarthy, G. (2009). The role of trauma-related distractors on neural systems for working memory and emotion processing in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. 43, 809-817.
104. Morey, R. A., Petty, C. M., Cooper, D. A., LaBar, K. S., and McCarthy, G. (2008). Neural systems for executive and emotional processing are modulated by symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in Iraq War veterans. Psychiat Res-Neuroim. 162, 59-72.
105. Myers, C. E., Vanmeenen, K. M., McAuley, J. D., Beck, K. D., Pang, K. C., and Servatius, R. J. (2012). Behaviorally inhibited temperament is associated with severity of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and faster eyeblink conditioning in veterans. Stress 15, 31-44.
106. New, A. S., Fan, J., Murrough, J. W., Liu, X., Liebman, R. E., Guise, K. G., Tang, C. Y., and Charney, D. S. (2009). A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of deliberate emotion regulation in resilience and posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 66, 656-664.
107. Ofrat, S., and Krueger, R. F. (2012). How research on the meta-structure of psychopathology aids in understanding biological correlates of mood and anxiety disorders. Biol. Mood Anxiety Disord. 2:13.
108. Orr, S., Metzger, L., Lasko, N., Macklin, M., Peri, T., and Pitman, R. (2000). De novo conditioning in trauma-exposed individuals with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 109, 290-298.
109. Paller, K. A., and Wagner, A. D. (2002). Observing the transformation of experience into memory. Trends Cogn. Sci. 6, 93-102.
110. Pannu Hayes, J., LaBar, K. S., Petty, C. M., McCarthy, G., and Morey, R. A. (2009). Alterations in the neural circuitry for emotion and attention associated with posttraumatic stress symptomatology. Psychiat Res-Neuroim. 172, 7-15.
111. Paunovic, N., Lundh, L. G., and Ost, L. G. (2002). Attentional and memory bias for emotional information in crime victims with acute posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). J. Anxiety Disord. 16, 675-692.
112. Peri, T., Ben-Shakhar, G., Orr, S. P., and Shalev, A. Y. (2000). Psychophysiologic assessment of aversive conditioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 47, 512-519.
113. Pine, D. S., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Montgomery, L., Monk, C. S., McClure, E., Guyer, A. E., Ernst, M., Charney, D. S., and Kaufman, J. (2005). Attention bias to threat in maltreated children: implications for vulnerability to stress-related psychopathology. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 291-296.
114. Pissiota, A., Frans, O., Fernandez, M., von Knorring, L., Fischer, H., and Fredrikson, M. (2002). Neurofunctional correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder: A PET symptom provocation study. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 252, 68-75.
115. Pitman, R. K. (1988). Post-traumatic stress disorder, conditioning, and network theory. Psychiat. Ann. 18, 182-189.
116. Pitman, R. K., Sanders, K. M., Zusman, R. M., Healy, A. R., Cheema, F., Lasko, N. B., Cahill, L., and Orr, S. P. (2002). Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biol. Psychiatry 51, 189-192.
117. Pizzagalli, D. A., Iosifescu, D., Hallett, L. A., Ratner, K. G., and Fava, M. (2008). Reduced hedonic capacity in major depressive disorder: evidence from a probabilistic reward task. J. Psychiatr. Res. 43, 76-87.
118. Putman, P., Hermans, E. J., Koppeschaar, H., van Schijndel, A., and van Honk, J. (2007). A single administration of cortisol acutely reduces preconscious attention for fear in anxious young men. Psychoneuroendocrino 32, 793-802.
119. Rauch, S. L., Shin, L. M., and Phelps, E. A. (2006). Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: Human neuroimaging research-Past, present, and future. Biol. Psychiatry 60, 376-382.
120. Resick, P., and Schnicke, M. (1993) Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims: A treatment manual: Sage Pubns.
121. Ritchey, M., LaBar, K. S., and Cabeza, R. (2011). Level of processing modulates the neural correlates of emotional memory formation. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 23, 757-771.
122. Roediger, H., and McDermott, K. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 21, 803-814.
123. Rougemont-Bücking, A., Linnman, C., Zeffiro, T. A., Zeidan, M. A., Lebron-Milad, K., Rodriguez-Romaguera, J., Rauch, S. L., Pitman, R. K., and Milad, M. R. (2011). Altered processing of contextual information during fear extinction in PTSD: An fMRI study. CNSNeurosci Ther. 17, 227-236.
124. Sailer, U., Robinson, S., Fischmeister, F. P. S., Konig, D., Oppenauer, C., Lueger-Schuster, B., Moser, E., Kryspin-Exner, I., and Bauer, H. (2008). Altered reward processing in the nucleus accumbens and mesial prefrontal cortex of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychologia 46, 2836-2844.
125. Schacter, D. L. (1999). The seven sins of memory: Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Am. Psychol. 54, 182-203.
126. Schweizer, S., and Dalgleish, T. (2011). Emotional working memory capacity in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Behav. Res. Ther. 49, 498-504.
127. Seeley, W. W., Menon, V., Schatzberg, A. F., Keller, J., Glover, G. H., Kenna, H., Reiss, A. L., and Greicius, M. D. (2007). Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. J. Neurosci. 27, 2349-2356.
128. Shin, L. M., Orr, S. P., Carson, M. A., Rauch, S. L., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., Peters, P. M., Metzger, L. J., Dougherty, D. D., Cannistraro, P. A., Alpert, N. M., Fischman, A. J., and Pitman, R. K. (2004). Regional cerebral blood flow in the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex during traumatic imagery in male and female Vietnam veterans with PTSD. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 168-176.
129. Shin, L. M., Shin, P. S., Heckers, S., Krangel, T. S., Macklin, M. L., Orr, S. P., Lasko, N., Segal, E., Makris, N., Richert, K., Levering, J., Schacter, D. L., Alpert, N. M., Fischman, A. J., Pitman, R. K., and Rauch, S. L. (2004). Hippocampal function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Hippocampus 14, 292-300.
130. Shin, L. M., Whalen, P. J., Pitman, R. K., Bush, G., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., McInerney, S. C., and Rauch, S. L. (2001). An fMRI study of anterior cingulate function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 50, 932-942.
131. Shin, L. M., Wright, C. I., Cannistraro, P. A., Wedig, M. M., McMullin, K., Martis, B., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., Cavanagh, S. R., Krangel, T. S., Orr, S. P., Pitman, R. K., Whalen, P. J., and Rauch, S. L. (2005). A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex responses to overtly presented fearful faces in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62, 273-281.
132. Shipherd, J., and Beck, J. (2005). The role of thought suppression in posttraumatic stress disorder. Behav. Ther. 36, 277-287.
133. Shipherd, J. C., and Beck, J. G. (1999). The effects of suppressing trauma-related thoughts on women with rape-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Behav. Res. Ther. 37, 99-112.
134. Simmons, A. N., and Matthews, S. C. (2012). Neural circuitry of PTSD with or without mild traumatic brain injury: A meta-analysis. Neuropharmacology 62, 598-606.
135. Simmons, A. N., Paulus, M. P., Thorp, S. R., Matthews, S. C., Norman, S. B., and Stein, M. B. (2008). Functional activation and neural networks in women with posttraumatic stress disorder related to intimate partner violence. Biol. Psychiatry 64, 681-690.
136. Stanford, M. S., Vasterling, J. J., Mathias, C. W., Constans, J. I., and Houston, R. J. (2001). Impact of threat relevance on P3 event-related potentials in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res. 102, 125-137.
137. Surís, A., North, C., Adinoff, B., Powell, C., and R., G. (2010). Effects of exogenous glucocorticoid on combat-related PTSD symptoms. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 22, 274-279.
138. Sutherland, K., and Bryant, R. (2007). Autobiographical memory in posttraumatic stress disorder before and after treatment. Behav. Res. Ther. 45, 2915-2923.
139. Tanielian, T., and Jaycox, L. H. (2008) Invisible wounds of war: Psychological and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recovery. RAND Corporation.
140. Taylor, F. B., Lowe, K., Thompson, C., McFall, M. M., Peskind, E. R., Kanter, E. D., Allison, N., Williams, J., Martin, P., and Raskind, M. A. (2006). Daytime prazosin reduces psychological distress to trauma specific cues in civilian trauma posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 59, 577-581.
141. Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: an outline and overview. Am. J. Psychiatry 148, 10-20.
142. Thomaes, K., Dorrepaal, E., Draijer, N., de Ruiter, M., Elzinga, B., van Balkom, A., Smoor, P., Smit, J., and Veltman, D. (2009). Increased activation of the left hippocampus region in Complex PTSD during encoding and recognition of emotional words: A pilot study. Psychiat Res-Neuroim. 171, 44-53.
143. Thomaes, K., Dorrepaal, E., Draijer, N., de Ruiter, M. B., Elzinga, B. M., van Balkom, A. J., Smit, J. H., and Veltman, D. J. (2012). Treatment effects on insular and anterior cingulate cortex activation during classic and emotional Stroop interference in child abuse-related complex post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Med. [Epub ahead of print].
144. Thrasher, S. M., Dalgleish, T., and Yule, W. (1994). Information processing in post-traumatic stress disorder. Behav. Res. Ther. 32, 247-254.
145. Vaiva, G., Ducrocq, F., Jezequel, K., Averland, B., Lestavel, P., Brunet, A., and Marmar, C. R. (2003). Immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma. Biol. Psychiatry 54, 947-949.
146. VanElzakker, M. B., Staples, L.K., Shin, L.M. (In press) The Neurocircuitry of Fear and PTSD. In: Sleep and Combat-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders, (E. Vermetten T.N., S.R., Pandi-Perumal, & M. Kramer, ed.): Springer-Verlag.
147. Vasterling, J. J., Duke, L. M., Brailey, K., Constans, J. I., Allain, A. N., Jr., and Sutker, P. B. (2002). Attention, learning, and memory performances and intellectual resources in Vietnam veterans: PTSD and no disorder comparisons. Neuropsychology. 16, 5-14.
148. Vrana, S. R., Roodman, A., and Beckham, J. C. (1995). Selective processing of trauma-relevant words in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Anxiety Disord. 9, 515-530.
149. Wald, I., Shechner, T., Bitton, S., Holoshitz, Y., Charney, D. S., Muller, D., Fox, N. A., Pine, D. S., and Bar-Haim, Y. (2011). Attention bias away from threat during life threatening danger predicts PTSD symptoms at one-year follow-up. Depress. Anxiety 28, 406-411.
150. Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., and White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 53, 5-13.
151. Williams, J., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., Hermans, D., Raes, F., Watkins, E., and Dalgleish, T. (2007). Autobiographical Memory Specificity and Emotional Disorder. Psychol. Bull. 133, 122-148.
152. Wittekind, C. E., Jelinek, L., Kellner, M., Moritz, S., and Muhtz, C. (2010). Intergenerational transmission of biased information processing in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following displacement after World War II. J. Anxiety Disord. 24, 953-957.
153. Zoellner, L. A., Foa, E. B., Brigidi, B. D., and Przeworski, A. (2000). Are trauma victims susceptible to "false memories"? J. Abnorm. Psychol. 109, 517-524.
154. Zoellner, L. A., Sacks, M. B., and Foa, E. B. (2003). Directed forgetting following mood induction in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder patients. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 112, 508-514.
155. Zwissler, B., Hauswald, A., Koessler, S., Ertl, V., Pfeiffer, A., Wohrmann, C., Winkler, N., and Kissler, J. (2011). Memory control in post-traumatic stress disorder: Evidence from item method directed forgetting in civil war victims in Northern Uganda. Psychol. Med., 1-9.