Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma

Neuropharmacology

Volumn 62, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 686-694

  Aupperle, Robin L ^a,b   Melrose, Andrew J ^a   Stein, Murray B ^a,b   Paulus, Martin P ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b VA SAN DIEGO HEALTHCARE SYSTEM   (United States)

Author keywords

Attention; Executive function; Inhibition; Neuroimaging; Neuropsychology; Posttraumatic stress disorder

Indexed keywords

PAROXETINE; PLACEBO;

AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; BRAIN DYSFUNCTION; COGNITIVE THERAPY; COPING BEHAVIOR; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; EMOTION; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; MENTAL TASK; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOLOGIC TEST; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SELECTIVE ATTENTION; TASK PERFORMANCE; THERAPY EFFECT; WORKING MEMORY;

ADAPTATION, PSYCHOLOGICAL; ATTENTION; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; HUMANS; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); MEMORY, SHORT-TERM; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC;

EID: 84855937004     PISSN: 00283908     EISSN: 18737064     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.008     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. J.A. Alvarez, and E. Emory Executive function and the frontal lobes: a meta-analytic review Neuropsychol. Rev. 16 2006 17 42
2. N. Amir, G. Weber, C. Beard, J. Bomyea, and C.T. Taylor The effect of a single-session attention modification program on response to a public-speaking challenge in socially anxious individuals J. Abnorm. Psychol. 117 2008 860 868
3. N. Amir, C.L. Badour, and B. Freese The effect of retrieval on recall of information in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder J. Anxiety Disord. 23 2009 535 540
4. N. Amir, C. Beard, M. Burns, and J. Bomyea Attention modification program in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder J. Abnorm. Psychol. 118 2009 28 33
5. A.R. Aron, P.C. Fletcher, E.T. Bullmore, B.J. Sahakian, and T.W. Robbins Stop-signal inhibition disrupted by damage to right inferior frontal gyrus in humans Nat. Neurosci. 6 2003 115 116
6. R.L. Aupperle, and M.P. Paulus Neural systems underlying approach and avoidance in anxiety disorders Dialog. Clin. Neurosci. 12 2010 305 319
7. D.H. Barrett, M.L. Green, R. Morris, W.H. Giles, and J.B. Croft Cognitive functioning and posttraumatic stress disorder Am. J. Psychiatry 153 1996 1492 1494
8. A. Bechara, H. Damasio, and A.R. Damasio Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex Cereb. Cortex 10 2000 295 307
9. A. Bechara, H. Damasio, and A.R. Damasio Role of the amygdala in decision-making Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 985 2003 356 369
10. J.C. Beckham, A.L. Crawford, and M.E. Feldman Trail making test performance in Vietnam combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder J. Trauma. Stress 11 1998 811 819
11. S.J. Bishop Neural mechanisms underlying selective attention to threat Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1129 2008 141 152
12. C. Bledowski, J. Kaiser, and B. Rahm Basic operations in working memory: contributions from functional imaging studies Behav. Brain Res. 214 2010 172 179
13. D. Brandes, G. Ben-Schachar, A. Gilboa, O. Bonne, S. Freedman, and A.Y. Shalev PTSD symptoms and cognitive performance in recent trauma survivors Psychiatry Res. 110 2002 231 238
14. J.D. Bremner Hypotheses and controversies related to effects of stress on the hippocampus: an argument for stress-induced damage to the hippocampus in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder Hippocampus 11 2001 75 81
15. J.D. Bremner, E. Vermetten, M. Vythilingam, N. Afzal, C. Schmahl, and B. Elzinga Neural correlates of the classic color and emotional stroop in women with abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder Biol. Psychiatry 55 2004 612 620
16. R.A. Bressan, L.C. Quarantini, S.B. Andreoli, C. Araujo, G. Breen, and C. Guindalini The posttraumatic stress disorder project in Brazil: neuropsychological, structural and molecular neuroimaging studies in victims of urban violence BMC Psychiatry 9 2009 30
17. M. Browning, E.A. Holmes, S.E. Murphy, G.M. Goodwin, and C.J. Harmer Lateral prefrontal cortex mediates the cognitive modification of attentional bias Biol. Psychiatry 67 2010 919 925
18. R.A. Bryant, K.L. Felmingham, A.H. Kemp, M. Barton, A.S. Peduto, and C. Rennie Neural networks of information processing in posttraumatic stress disorder: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study Biol. Psychiatry 58 2005 111 118
19. L. Burriss, E. Ayers, J. Ginsberg, and D.A. Powell Learning and memory impairment in PTSD: relationship to depression Depress. Anxiety 25 2008 149 157
20. G. Bush, P.J. Whalen, B.R. Rosen, M.A. Jenike, S.C. McInerney, and S.L. Rauch The counting stroop: an interference task specialized for functional neuroimaging-validation study with functional MRI Hum. Brain Mapp. 6 1998 270 282
21. S.M. Carlson, A.C. Davis, and J.G. Leach Less is more: executive function and symbolic representation in preschool children Psychol. Sci. 16 2005 609 616
22. J.H. Casada, and J.D. Roache Behavioral inhibition and activation in posttraumatic stress disorder J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 193 2005 102 109
23. C.M. Chemtob, H.L. Roitblat, R.S. Hamada, M.Y. Muraoka, J.G. Carlson, and G.B. Bauer Compelled attention: the effects of viewing trauma-related stimuli on concurrent task performance in posttraumatic stress disorder J. Trauma. Stress 12 1999 309 326
24. V.P. Clark, S. Fannon, S. Lai, R. Benson, and L. Bauer Responses to rare visual target and distractor stimuli using event-related fMRI J. Neurophysiol. 83 2000 3133 3139
25. R.J. Compton, M.T. Banich, A. Mohanty, M.P. Milham, J. Herrington, and G.A. Miller Paying attention to emotion: an fMRI investigation of cognitive and emotional stroop tasks Cogn. Affect Behav. Neurosci. 3 2003 81 96
26. C. Conners Conners' Continuous Performance Test Computer Program User's Guide 1992 Multi-Health Systems Toronto, Canada
27. T.A. Crowell, K.M. Kieffer, C.A. Siders, and R.D. Vanderploeg Neuropsychological findings in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder Clin. Neuropsychol. 16 2002 310 321
28. J. Cukor, M. Olden, F. Lee, and J. Difede Evidence-based treatments for PTSD, new directions, and special challenges Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1208 2010 82 89
29. T. Dalgleish, R. Taghavi, H. Neshat-Doost, A. Moradi, R. Canterbury, and W. Yule Patterns of processing bias for emotional information across clinical disorders: a comparison of attention, memory, and prospective cognition in children and adolescents with depression, generalized anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 32 2003 10 21
30. D.C. Delis, J. Freeland, J.H. Kramer, and E. Kaplan Integrating clinical assessment with cognitive neuroscience: construct validation of the California Verbal Learning Test J. Consult. Clin. Psychol 56 1988 123 130
31. D. Delis, E. Kaplan, and J. Kramer Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS): Examiner's Manual 2001 The Psychological Corporation San Antonio, TX
32. T. Devineni, E.B. Blanchard, E.J. Hickling, and T.C. Buckley Effect of psychological treatment on cognitive bias in motor vehicle accident-related posttraumatic stress disorder J. Anxiety Disord. 18 2004 211 231
33. S. Eldar, and Y. Bar-Haim Neural plasticity in response to attention training in anxiety Psychol. Med. 40 2010 667 677
34. A. Etkin, and T.D. Wager Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia Am. J. Psychiatry 164 2007 1476 1488
35. E. Falconer, R. Bryant, K.L. Felmingham, A.H. Kemp, E. Gordon, and A. Peduto The neural networks of inhibitory control in posttraumatic stress disorder J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 33 2008 413 422
36. N. Fani, N. Kitayama, A. Ashraf, L. Reed, N. Afzal, and F. Jawed Neuropsychological functioning in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder following short-term paroxetine treatment Psychopharmacol. Bull. 42 2009 53 68
37. H.M. Fichtenholtz, H.L. Dean, D.G. Dillon, H. Yamasaki, G. McCarthy, and K.S. Labar Emotion-attention network interactions during a visual oddball task Brain. Res. Cogn. Brain. Res. 20 2004 67 80
38. E.B. Foa, and M.J. Kozak Emotional processing of fear: exposure to corrective information Psychol. Bull. 99 1986 20 35
39. E.B. Foa, U. Feske, T.B. Murdock, M.J. Kozak, and P.R. McCarthy Processing of threat-related information in rape victims J. Abnorm. Psychol. 100 1991 156 162
40. E.B. Foa, E.A. Hembree, and B.O. Rothbaum Prolonged Exposure Therapy for PTSD: Emotional Processing of Traumatic Experiences 2007 Oxford University Press New York
41. V. Francati, E. Vermetten, and J.D. Bremner Functional neuroimaging studies in posttraumatic stress disorder: review of current methods and findings Depress. Anxiety 24 2007 202 218
42. C.R. Gale, I.J. Deary, S.H. Boyle, J. Barefoot, L.H. Mortensen, and G.D. Batty Cognitive ability in early adulthood and risk of 5 specific psychiatric disorders in middle age: the Vietnam experience study Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 65 2008 1410 1418
43. H. Garavan, T.J. Ross, and E.A. Stein Right hemispheric dominance of inhibitory control: an event-related functional MRI study Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 96 1999 8301 8306
44. M.W. Gilbertson, T.V. Gurvits, N.B. Lasko, S.P. Orr, and R.K. Pitman Multivariate assessment of explicit memory function in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder J. Trauma. Stress 14 2001 413 432
45. M.W. Gilbertson, L.A. Paulus, S.K. Williston, T.V. Gurvits, N.B. Lasko, and R.K. Pitman Neurocognitive function in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder J. Abnorm. Psychol. 115 2006 484 495
46. J. Golier, R. Yehuda, B. Cornblatt, P. Harvey, D. Gerber, and R. Levengood Sustained attention in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder Integr. Physiol. Behav. Sci. 32 1997 52 61
47. B.L. Green, M.C. Grace, J.D. Lindy, G.C. Gleser, and A. Leonard Risk factors for PTSD and other diagnoses in a general sample of Vietnam veterans Am. J. Psychiatry 147 1990 729 733
48. T.V. Gurvits, N.B. Lasko, S.C. Schachter, A.A. Kuhne, S.P. Orr, and R.K. Pitman Neurological status of Vietnam veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 5 1993 183 188
49. T.A. Hare, C.F. Camerer, D.T. Knoepfle, and A. Rangel Value computations in ventral medial prefrontal cortex during charitable decision making incorporate input from regions involved in social cognition J. Neurosci. 30 2010 583 590
50. R. Heaton Wisconsin Card Sorting Test 1981 Psychological Assessment Resources Odessa, FL
51. W. James The Principles of Psychology 1890 Henry Holt New York 404 pp.
52. L. Jelinek, D. Jacobsen, M. Kellner, F. Larbig, K.H. Biesold, and K. Barre Verbal and nonverbal memory functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 28 2006 940 948
53. L. Jelinek, S. Moritz, S. Randjbar, D. Sommerfeldt, K. Puschel, and D. Seifert Does the evocation of traumatic memories confound subsequent working memory performance in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? Depress. Anxiety 25 2008 175 179
54. M.A. Jenkins, P.J. Langlais, D. Delis, and R.A. Cohen Attentional dysfunction associated with posttraumatic stress disorder among rape survivors Clin. Neuropsychol. 14 2000 7 12
55. G.E. Johnsen, and A.E. Asbjornsen Consistent impaired verbal memory in PTSD: a meta-analysis J. Affect. Disord. 111 2008 74 82
56. P. Kanagaratnam, and A.E. Asbjornsen Executive deficits in chronic PTSD related to political violence J. Anxiety. Disord. 21 2007 510 525
57. R.C. Kessler, A. Sonnega, E. Bromet, M. Hughes, and C.B. Nelson Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National comorbidity survey Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52 1995 1048 1060
58. K.A. Kiehl, P.F. Liddle, and J.B. Hopfinger Error processing and the rostral anterior cingulate: an event-related fMRI study Psychophysiology 37 2000 216 223
59. S. Kim, and D. Lee Prefrontal cortex and impulsive decision making Biol. Psychiatry 2010
60. M.O. Kimble, B.C. Frueh, and L. Marks Does the modified stroop effect exist in PTSD? Evidence from dissertation abstracts and the peer reviewed literature J. Anxiety Disord. 23 2009 650 655
61. M.O. Kimble, K. Fleming, C. Bandy, J. Kim, and A. Zambetti Eye tracking and visual attention to threating stimuli in veterans of the Iraq war J. Anxiety Disord. 24 2010 293 299
62. E. Kirino, A. Belger, P. Goldman-Rakic, and G. McCarthy Prefrontal activation evoked by infrequent target and novel stimuli in a visual target detection task: an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study J. Neurosci. 20 2000 6612 6618
63. K.C. Koenen, K.L. Driver, M. Oscar-Berman, J. Wolfe, S. Folsom, and M.T. Huang Measures of prefrontal system dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder Brain Cogn. 45 2001 64 78
64. S. Konishi, K. Nakajima, I. Uchida, K. Sekihara, and Y. Miyashita No-go dominant brain activity in human inferior prefrontal cortex revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging Eur. J. Neurosci. 10 1998 1209 1213
65. M. Koso, and S. Hansen Executive function and memory in posttraumatic stress disorder: a study of Bosnian war veterans Eur. Psychiatry. 21 2006 167 173
66. W.S. Kremen, K.C. Koenen, C. Boake, S. Purcell, S.A. Eisen, and C.E. Franz Pretrauma cognitive ability and risk for posttraumatic stress disorder: a twin study Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64 2007 361 368
67. G. Lagarde, J. Doyon, and A. Brunet Memory and executive dysfunctions associated with acute posttraumatic stress disorder Psychiatry Res. 177 2010 144 149
68. L.P. Leskin, and P.M. White Attentional networks reveal executive function deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder Neuropsychology 21 2007 275 284
69. S. Li, J. Tan, M. Qian, and X. Liu Continual training of attentional bias in social anxiety Behav. Res. Ther. 46 2008 905 912
70. I. Liberzon, and C.S. Sripada The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD: a critical review Prog. Brain Res. 167 2008 151 169
71. P.F. Liddle, K.A. Kiehl, and A.M. Smith Event-related fMRI study of response inhibition Hum. Brain Mapp. 12 2001 100 109
72. R.J. Lindauer, M. Olff, E.P. van Meijel, I.V. Carlier, and B.P. Gersons Cortisol, learning, memory, and attention in relation to smaller hippocampal volume in police officers with posttraumatic stress disorder Biol. Psychiatry 59 2006 171 177
73. B.T. Litz, F.W. Weathers, V. Monaco, D.S. Herman, M. Wulfsohn, and B. Marx Attention, arousal, and memory in posttraumatic stress disorder J. Trauma. Stress 9 1996 497 519
74. J. Loong The Continuous Performance Test 1988 Wang Neuropsychological Laboratory San Luis Obispo, CA
75. C. MacLeod, A. Mathews, and P. Tata Attentional bias in emotional disorders Journal of Abnormal Psychology 95 1986 15 20
76. C. MacLeod, E. Rutherford, L. Campbell, G. Ebsworthy, and L. Holker Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias J. Abnorm. Psychol. 111 2002 107 123
77. M.L. Macklin, L.J. Metzger, B.T. Litz, R.J. McNally, N.B. Lasko, and S.P. Orr Lower precombat intelligence is a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 66 1998 323 326
78. C.R. Marmar, S.E. McCaslin, T.J. Metzler, S. Best, D.S. Weiss, and J. Fagan Predictors of posttraumatic stress in police and other first responders Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1071 2006 1 18
79. B.P. Marx, S. Doron-Lamarca, S.P. Proctor, and J.J. Vasterling The influence of pre-deployment neurocognitive functioning on post-deployment PTSD symptom outcomes among Iraq-deployed army soldiers J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 15 2009 840 852
80. A. Mathews, and C. MacLeod Selective processing of threat cues in anxiety states Behav. Res. Ther 23 1985 563 569
81. D.P. McCabe, H.L. Roediger, M.A. McDaniel, D.A. Balota, and D.Z. Hambrick The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: evidence for a common executive attention construct Neuropsychology 24 2010 222 243
82. G. McCarthy, M. Luby, J. Gore, and P. Goldman-Rakic Infrequent events transiently activate human prefrontal and parietal cortex as measured by functional MRI J. Neurophysiol. 77 1997 1630 1634
83. A.C. McFarlane, D.L. Weber, and C.R. Clark Abnormal stimulus processing in posttraumatic stress disorder Biol. Psychiatry 34 1993 311 320
84. R.J. McNally, S.P. Kaspi, B.C. Riemann, and S.B. Zeitlin Selective processing of threat cues in posttraumatic stress disorder J. Abnorm. Psychol. 99 1990 398 402
85. V. Menon, J.M. Ford, K.O. Lim, G.H. Glover, and A. Pfefferbaum Combined event-related fMRI and EEG evidence for temporal-parietal cortex activation during target detection Neuroreport 8 1997 3029 3037
86. V. Menon, N.E. Adleman, C.D. White, G.H. Glover, and A.L. Reiss Error-related brain activation during a Go/NoGo response inhibition task Hum. Brain Mapp. 12 2001 131 143
87. B. Milner Interhemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man Br. Med. Bull. 27 1971 272 277
88. A. Miyake, and P. Shah Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control 1999 Cambridge University Press Cambridge
89. A. Mohanty, A.S. Engels, J.D. Herrington, W. Heller, M.H. Ho, and M.T. Banich Differential engagement of anterior cingulate cortex subdivisions for cognitive and emotional function Psychophysiology 44 2007 343 351
90. S.A. Moore Cognitive abnormalities in posttraumatic stress disorder Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 22 2009 19 24
91. K.A. Moores, C.R. Clark, A.C. McFarlane, G.C. Brown, A. Puce, and D.J. Taylor Abnormal recruitment of working memory updating networks during maintenance of trauma-neutral information in post-traumatic stress disorder Psychiatry Res. 163 2008 156 170
92. R.A. Morey, C.M. Petty, D.A. Cooper, K.S. Labar, and G. McCarthy Neural systems for executive and emotional processing are modulated by symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in Iraq war veterans Psychiatry Res. 162 2008 59 72
93. R.A. Morey, F. Dolcos, C.M. Petty, D.A. Cooper, J.P. Hayes, and K.S. Labar The role of trauma-related distractors on neural systems for working memory and emotion processing in posttraumatic stress disorder J. Psychiatry Res. 43 2009 809 817
94. C. Mueller-Pfeiffer, C. Martin-Soelch, J.R. Blair, A. Carnier, N. Kaiser, and M. Rufer Impact of emotion on cognition in trauma survivors: what is the role of posttraumatic stress disorder? J. Affect. Disord. 126 2010 287 292
95. S. Najmi, and N. Amir The effect of attention training on a behavioral test of contamination fears in individuals with subclinical obsessive-compulsive symptoms J. Abnorm. Psychol. 119 2010 136 142
96. H. Nelson The National Adult Reading Test (NART): Test Manual 1982 NFER-Nelson Windsor, UK
97. H. Nelson, and J. Willison The Revised National Adult Reading Test-Test Manual 1991 NFER-Nelson Windsor, UK
98. T.C. Neylan, M. Lenoci, J. Rothlind, T.J. Metzler, N. Schuff, and A.T. Du Attention, learning, and memory in posttraumatic stress disorder J. Trauma. Stress 17 2004 41 46
99. H.K. Orcutt, D.J. Erickson, and J. Wolfe The course of PTSD symptoms among Gulf war veterans: a growth mixture modeling approach J. Trauma. Stress 17 2004 195 202
100. P. Osterrieth Le test de copie d'une figure complexe: contribution a l'étude de la perception et de la memoire Arch. Psychol 30 1944 286 350
101. H.J. Pannu Hayes, K.S. Labar, C.M. Petty, G. McCarthy, and R.A. Morey Alterations in the neural circuitry for emotion and attention associated with posttraumatic stress symptomatology Psychiatry Res. 172 2009 7 15
102. R.A. Parslow, and A.F. Jorm Pretrauma and posttrauma neurocognitive functioning and PTSD symptoms in a community sample of young adults Am. J. Psychiatry 164 2007 509 515
103. J. Partington, and R. Leiter Partington's pathway test Psychol. Serv. Center Bull. 1 1949 9 20
104. S.L. Pineles, J.C. Shipherd, L.P. Welch, and I. Yovel The role of attentional biases in PTSD: is it interference or facilitation? Behav. Res. Ther. 45 2007 1903 1913
105. S.L. Pineles, J.C. Shipherd, S.M. Mostoufi, S.M. Abramovitz, and I. Yovel Attentional biases in PTSD: more evidence for interference Behav. Res. Ther. 47 2009 1050 1057
106. R.K. Pitman, S.P. Orr, M.J. Lowenhagen, M.L. Macklin, and B. Altman Pre-Vietnam contents of posttraumatic stress disorder veterans' service medical and personnel records Compr. Psychiatry 32 1991 416 422
107. A. Rangel, C. Camerer, and P.R. Montague A framework for studying the neurobiology of value-based decision making Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 9 2008 545 556
108. G. Repovs, and A. Baddeley The multi-component model of working memory: explorations in experimental cognitive psychology Neuroscience 139 2006 5 21
109. P.A. Resick, and M.K. Schnicke Cognitive Processing for Rape Victims 1996 Sage Publications Newbury Park, CA
110. R. Reitan Vaidity of the trail making test as an indicator of organic brain damage Percept. Mot. Skills 9 1958 127 130
111. A. Rey L'examen psychologique dans les cas d'encephalopathie traumatique Arch. Psychol 28 1941 286 340
112. C. Reynolds Comprehensive Trail Making Test: Examiner's Manual 2002 PRO-ED Austin, TX
113. B.O. Rothbaum, E.B. Foa, D.S. Riggs, T. Murdock, and W. Walsh A prospective examination of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims J. Trauma. Stress 5 1992 455 475
114. D.R. Royall, E.C. Lauterbach, J.L. Cummings, A. Reeve, T.A. Rummans, and D.I. Kaufer Executive control function: a review of its promise and challenges for clinical research. A report from the committee on research of the American neuropsychiatric association J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 14 2002 377 405
115. K. Rubia, S. Overmeyer, E. Taylor, M. Brammer, S. Williams, and A. Simmons Prefrontal involvement in "temporal bridging" and timing movement Neuropsychologia 36 1998 1283 1293
116. D.C. Rubin, D. Berntsen, and M.K. Bohni A memory-based model of posttraumatic stress disorder: evaluating basic assumptions underlying the PTSD diagnosis Psychol. Rev. 115 2008 985 1011
117. U. Sailer, S. Robinson, F.P. Fischmeister, D. Konig, C. Oppenauer, and B. Lueger-Schuster Altered reward processing in the nucleus accumbens and mesial prefrontal cortex of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder Neuropsychologia 46 2008 2836 2844
118. T.A. Salthouse, T.M. Atkinson, and D.E. Berish Executive functioning as a potential mediator of age-related cognitive decline in normal adults J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 132 2003 566 594
119. K.W. Samuelson, T.C. Neylan, T.J. Metzler, M. Lenoci, J. Rothlind, and C. Henn-Haase Neuropsychological functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol abuse Neuropsychology 20 2006 716 726
120. N.B. Schmidt, J.A. Richey, J.D. Buckner, and K.R. Timpano Attention training for generalized social anxiety disorder J. Abnorm. Psychol. 118 2009 5 14
121. M.A. Schottenbauer, C.R. Glass, D.B. Arnkoff, V. Tendick, and S.H. Gray Nonresponse and dropout rates in outcome studies on PTSD: review and methodological considerations Psychiatry 71 2008 134 168
122. A.Y. Shalev, S. Freedman, T. Peri, D. Brandes, T. Sahar, and S.P. Orr Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma Am. J. Psychiatry 155 1998 630 637
123. T. Shallice Specific impairments in planning Philos. Transcrip. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 298 1982 199 209
124. L.M. Shin, and I. Liberzon The neurocircuitry of fear, stress, and anxiety disorders Neuropsychopharmacology 35 2010 169 191
125. L.M. Shin, P.J. Whalen, R.K. Pitman, G. Bush, M.L. Macklin, and N.B. Lasko An fMRI study of anterior cingulate function in posttraumatic stress disorder Biol. Psychiatry 50 2001 932 942
126. J.L. Shucard, D.C. McCabe, and H. Szymanski An event-related potential study of attention deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder during auditory and visual Go/NoGo continuous performance tasks Biol. Psychol. 79 2008 223 233
127. H. Simon The functional equivalence of problem-solving skills Cogn. Psychol 7 1975 268 288
128. A. Smith Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDM) Manual 1982 Western Psychological Services Los Angeles
129. E.E. Smith, and J. Jonides Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes Science 283 1999 1657 1661
130. M.B. Stein, and T.W. McAllister Exploring the convergence of posttraumatic stress disorder and mild traumatic brain injury Am. J. Psychiatry 166 2009 768 776
131. M.B. Stein, C.M. Kennedy, and E.W. Twamley Neuropsychological function in female victims of intimate partner violence with and without posttraumatic stress disorder Biol. Psychiatry 52 2002 1079 1088
132. W.W. Thompson, and Gottesman II Challenging the conclusion that lower preinduction cognitive ability increases risk for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder in 2,375 combat-exposed, Vietnam war veterans Mil. Med. 173 2008 576 582
133. E.W. Twamley, S. Hami, and M.B. Stein Neuropsychological function in college students with and without posttraumatic stress disorder Psychiatry Res. 126 2004 265 274
134. E.W. Twamley, C.B. Allard, S.R. Thorp, S.B. Norman, S.H. Cissell, and K.H. Berardi Cognitive impairment and functioning in PTSD related to intimate partner violence J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 15 2009 879 887
135. J.J. Vasterling, K. Brailey, J.I. Constans, and P.B. Sutker Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder Neuropsychology 12 1998 125 133
136. J.J. Vasterling, K. Brailey, L.M. Duke, J.I. Constans, A.N. Allain, and P.B. Sutker Attention, learning, and memory performances and intellectual resources in Vietnam veterans: PTSD and no disorder comparisons Neuropsychology 16 2002 5 14
137. E. Vermetten, M. Vythilingam, S.M. Southwick, D.S. Charney, and J.D. Bremner Long-term treatment with paroxetine increases verbal declarative memory and hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder Biol. Psychiatry 54 2003 693 702
138. K.H. Walter, P.A. Palmieri, and J. Gunstad More than symptom reduction: changes in executive function over the course of PTSD treatment J. Trauma. Stress 23 2010 292 295
139. D. Wechsler Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised 1987 The Psychological Corporation New York
140. D. Wechsler WAIS-III: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, third ed., Administration and Scoring Manual 1997 The Psychological Corporation San Antonio, TX
141. D. Wechsler Wechsler Memory Scale third ed. 1997 The Psychological Corporation San Antonio, TX
142. D. Wechsler Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale fourth ed. 2008 Pearson Assessments San Antonio, TX
143. P.J. Whalen, G. Bush, R.J. McNally, S. Wilhelm, S.C. McInerney, and M.A. Jenike The emotional counting stroop paradigm: a functional magnetic resonance imaging probe of the anterior cingulate affective division Biol. Psychiatry 44 1998 1219 1228
144. J. Wild, and R.C. Gur Verbal memory and treatment response in post-traumatic stress disorder Br. J. Psychiatry 193 2008 254 255
145. J.M. Williams, A. Mathews, and C. MacLeod The emotional stroop task and psychopathology Psychol. Bull. 120 1996 3 24
146. J. Wu, Y. Ge, Z. Shi, X. Duan, L. Wang, and X. Sun Response inhibition in adolescent earthquake survivors with and without posttraumatic stress disorder: a combined behavioral and ERP study Neurosci. Lett. 2010
147. H. Yamasaki, K.S. Labar, and G. McCarthy Dissociable prefrontal brain systems for attention and emotion Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 99 2002 11447 11451
148. T. Yoshiura, J. Zhong, D.K. Shibata, W.E. Kwok, D.A. Shrier, and Y. Numaguchi Functional MRI study of auditory and visual oddball tasks Neuroreport 10 1999 1683 1688
149. C. Zalewski, W. Thompson, and I. Gottesman Comparison of neuropsychological test performance in PTSD, generalized anxiety disorder, and control Vietnam veterans Assessment 1 1994 133 142