Obesity: Lessons from evolution and the environment

Obesity Reviews

Volumn 13, Issue 10, 2012, Pages 910-922

  Heitmann, B L ^a   Westerterp, K R ^b   Loos, R J F ^c   Sorensen T I A ^a,d   O'Dea, K ^e   Mclean, P ^f   Jensen, T K ^g   Eisenmann, J ^h   Speakman, J R ^i,j   Simpson, S J ^k   Reed, D R ^l   Westerterp Plantenga, M S ^b  

^a The Capital Region   (Denmark)

^b MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^c MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d Capital Region   (Denmark)

^e UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

^f UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^g UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN DENMARK   (Denmark)

^h HELEN DEVOS CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

ⁱ INSTITUTE OF GENETICS AND DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY   (China)

^j UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN   (United Kingdom)

^k UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

^l MONELL CHEMICAL SENSES CENTER   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

Comparative ecology and physiology; Energy storage; Perinatal programming; Stock conference

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BODY FAT; BODY WEIGHT; CALORIC INTAKE; DIET; DRINKING BEHAVIOR; ECOLOGY; ENERGY BALANCE; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPIGENETICS; EVOLUTION; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; HUNGER; LIFESPAN; LIFESTYLE; MAMMAL; METABOLISM; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; TASTE DISCRIMINATION;

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; CONGRESSES AS TOPIC; DIET; ENERGY METABOLISM; GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMANS; LIFE STYLE; OBESITY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

EID: 84866753143     PISSN: 14677881     EISSN: 1467789X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2012.01007.x     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. Huneault L, Mathieu MÈ, Tremblay A. Globalization and modernization: an obesogenic combination. Obes Rev 2011; 12: e64-e72.
2. Lyznicki JM, Young DC, Riggs JA, Davis RM, Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association. Obesity: assessment and management in primary care. Am Fam Physician 2001; 63: 2185-2196.
3. Ravussin E, Valencia ME, Esparza J, Bennett PH, Schulz O. Effects of a traditional lifestyle on obesity in Pima Indians. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 1067-1074.
4. Bouchard C, Tremblay A, Despres JP etal. The response to long-term overfeeding in identical twins. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1477-1482.
5. Bouchard C, Tremblay A, Despres JP etal. The response to exercise with constant energy intake in identical twins. Obes Res 1994; 2: 400-410.
6. Hainer V, Stunkard AJ, Kunesova M, Parizkova J, Stich V, Allison DB. Intrapair resemblance in very low calorie diet-induced weight loss in female obese identical twins. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 1051-1057.
7. Hagberg JM, Rankinen T, Loos RJF etal. Advances in exercise, fitness, and performance genomics in 2010. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2011; 43: 743-752.
8. Kilpelainen TO. Physical activity attenuates the influence of FTO variants on obesity risk; a meta-analysis of 218, 166 adults and 19, 268 children. PLoS Med 2011; 8: e1001116.
9. Bell CG, Finer S, Lindgren CM etal. Integrated genetic and epigenetic analysis identifies haplotype-specific methylation in the FTO type 2 diabetes and obesity susceptibility locus. PLoS ONE 2010; 5: e14040.
10. Almen MS, Jacobsson JA, Moschonis G etal. Genome wide analysis reveals association of a FTO gene variant with epigenetic changes. Genomics 2012; 99: 132-137.
11. Li S, Zhao JH, Luan J etal. Physical activity attenuates the genetic predisposition to obesity in 20, 000 men and women from EPIC-Norfolk prospective population study. PLoS Med 2010; 7: e1000332.
12. Westerterp KR. Energy metabolism and body composition; general principles. Eur Respir Mon 2003; 24: 1-10.
13. Snitker S, Tataranni PA, Ravussin E. Spontaneous physical activity in a respiratory chamber is correlated to habitual physical activity. Int J Obes 2001; 25: 1481-1486.
14. Westerterp KR, Kester ADM. Physical activity in confined conditions as an indicator of free-living physical activity. Obes Res 2003; 11: 865-868.
15. Joosen AMCP, Gielen M, Vlietinck R, Westerterp KR. Genetic analysis of physical activity in twins. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 82: 1253-1259.
16. Edholm OG, Fletcher JG, Widdowson EM, McCance RA. The energy expenditure and food intake of individual men. Br J Nutr 1955; 9: 286-300.
17. Blundell JE, Lawton CL, Cotton JR, Macdiarmid JI. Control of human appetite: implications for the intake of dietary fat. Annu Rev Nutr 1996; 16: 285-319. Review.
18. Lemmens SG, Martens EA, Kester AD, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Changes in gut hormone and glucose concentrations in relation to hunger and fullness. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 94: 717-725.
19. Adam TC, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Glucagon-like peptide-1 release and satiety after a nutrient challenge in normal-weight and obese subjects. Br J Nutr 2005; 93: 845-851.
20. Adam TC, Jocken J, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Decreased glucagon-like peptide 1 release after weight loss in overweight/obese subjects. Obes Res 2005; 13: 710-716.
21. Hursel R, Rutters F, Gonnissen HK, Martens EA, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Effects of sleep fragmentation in healthy men on energy expenditure, substrate oxidation, physical activity, and exhaustion measured over 48 h in a respiratory chamber. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 94: 804-808.
22. Rutters F, Gonnissen HK, Hursel R, Lemmens SG, Martens EA, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Distinct associations between energy balance and the sleep characteristics slow wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep. Int J Obes 2012; doi: 10.1038/ijo.2011.250.
23. Westerterp-Plantenga MS, van Marken Lichtenbelt WD, Cilissen C, Top S. Energy metabolism in women during short exposure to the thermoneutral zone. Physiol Behav 2002; 75: 227-235.
24. Westerterp-Plantenga MS, van Marken Lichtenbelt WD, Strobbe H, Schrauwen P. Energy metabolism in humans at a lowered ambient temperature. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002; 56: 288-296.
25. Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Westerterp KR, Rubbens M, Verwegen CR, Richelet JP, Gardette B. Appetite at 'high altitude'[Operation Everest III (Comex-'97)]: a simulated ascent of Mount Everest. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87: 391-399.
26. Rutters F, Nieuwenhuizen AG, Lemmens SG, Born JM, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Acute stress-related changes in eating in the absence of hunger. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2009; 17: 72-77.
27. Lemmens SG, Rutters F, Born JM, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Stress augments food 'wanting' and energy intake in visceral overweight subjects in the absence of hunger. Physiol Behav 2011; 103: 157-163.
28. Born JM, Lemmens SG, Martens MJ, Formisano E, Goebel R, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Differences between liking and wanting signals in the human brain and relations with cognitive dietary restraint and body mass index. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 94: 392-403.
29. Born JM, Lemmens SG, Rutters F etal. Acute stress and food-related reward activation in the brain during food choice during eating in the absence of hunger. Int J Obes 2010; 34: 172-181.
30. den Hoed M, Smeets AJ, Veldhorst MA etal. SNP analyses of postprandial responses in (an)orexigenic hormones and feelings of hunger reveal long-term physiological adaptations to facilitate homeostasis. Int J Obes 2008; 32: 1790-1798.
31. den Hoed M, Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Bouwman FG, Mariman EC, Westerterp KR. Postprandial responses in hunger and satiety are associated with the rs9939609 single nucleotide polymorphism in FTO. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 90: 1426-1432.
32. Arble DM, Bass J, Laposky AD, Vitaterna MH, Turek FW. Circadian timing of food intake contributes to weight gain. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2009; 17: 2100-2102.
33. Turek FW, Vitaterna MH. Molecular neurobiology of circadian rhythms. Handb Clin Neurol 2011; 99: 951-961.
34. Sørensen TI. Obesity defined as excess storage of inert triglycerides - do we need a paradigm shift? Obes Facts 2011; 4: 91-94.
35. Sørensen TI, Virtue S, Vidal-Puig A. Obesity as a clinical and public health problem: is there a need for a new definition based on lipotoxicity effects? Biochim Biophys Acta 2010; 1801: 400-404. Review.
36. Wulan SN, Westerterp KR, Plasqui G. Ethnic differences in body composition and the associated metabolic profile: a comparative study between Asians and Caucasians. Maturitas 2010; 65: 315-319.
37. Elphingstone JJ. The health of Australian Aborigines with no previous association with Europeans. Med J Aust 1971; 2: 293-301.
38. O'Dea K. Traditional diet and food preferences of Australian Aboriginal hunter-gatherers. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1991; 334: 233-241.
39. Levin BE. Metabolic imprinting: critical impact of the perinatal environment on the regulation of energy homeostasis. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2006; 361: 1107-1121.
40. Dyer JS, Rosenfeld CR. Metabolic imprinting by prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal overnutrition: a review. Semin Reprod Med 2011; 29: 266-276.
41. Gorski JN, Dunn-Meynell AA, Hartman TG, Levin BE. Postnatal environment overrides genetic and prenatal factors influencing offspring obesity and insulin resistance. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006; 291: R768-R778.
42. Le Foll C, Irani BG, Magnan C, Dunn-Meynell A, Levin BE. Effects of maternal genotype and diet on offspring glucose and fatty acid-sensing ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus neurons. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2009; 297: R1351-R1357.
43. Plagemann A. Perinatal programming and functional teratogenesis: impact on body weight regulation and obesity. Physiol Behav 2005; 86: 661-668.
44. Tamashiro KL, Moran TH. Perinatal environment and its influences on metabolic programming of offspring. Physiol Behav 2010; 100: 560-566.
45. Tamashiro KL, Terrillion CE, Hyun J, Koenig JI, Moran TH. Prenatal stress or high-fat diet increases susceptibility to diet-induced obesity in rat offspring. Diabetes 2009; 58: 1116-1125.
46. Wahlig JL, Bales ES, Jackman MR, Johnson GC, McManaman JL, Maclean PS. Impact of high-fat diet and obesity on energy balance and fuel utilization during the metabolic challenge of lactation. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012; 20: 65-75.
47. Patterson CM, Bouret SG, Dunn-Meynell AA, Levin BE. Three weeks of postweaning exercise in DIO rats produces prolonged increases in central leptin sensitivity and signaling. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2009; 296: R537-R548.
48. Patterson CM, Dunn-Meynell AA, Levin BE. Three weeks of early-onset exercise prolongs obesity resistance in DIO rats after exercise cessation. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008; 294: R290-R301.
49. Amir LH, Donath S. A systematic review of maternal obesity and breastfeeding intention, initiation and duration. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2007; 7: 9.
50. Mok E, Multon C, Piguel L etal. Decreased full breastfeeding, altered practices, perceptions, and infant weight change of prepregnant obese women: a need for extra support. Pediatrics 2008; 121: e1319-e1324.
51. Gluckman PD, Hanson MA. The developmental origins of the metabolic syndrome. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2004; 15: 183-187.
52. Heindel JJ, vom Saal FS. Role of nutrition and environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals during the perinatal period on the etiology of obesity. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2009; 304: 90-96.
53. Skakkebaek NE, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Main KM. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: an increasingly common developmental disorder with environmental aspects. Hum Reprod 2001; 16: 972-978.
54. Tang-Péronard JL, Andersen HR, Jensen TK, Heitmann BL. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals and obesity development in humans: a review. Obes Rev 2011; 12: 622-636.
55. Newbold RR, Padilla-Banks E, Jefferson WN, Heindel JJ. Effects of endocrine disruptors on obesity. Int J Androl 2008; 31: 201-208.
56. vom Saal FS, Akingbemi BT, Belcher SM etal. Chapel Hill bisphenol A expert panel consensus statement: integration of mechanisms, effects in animals and potential to impact human health at current levels of exposure. Reprod Toxicol 2007; 24: 131-138.
57. Stahlhut RW, van Wijngaarden E, Dye TD, Cook S, Swan SH. Concentrations of urinary phthalate metabolites are associated with increased waist circumference and insulin resistance in adult U.S. males. Environ Health Perspect 2007; 115: 876-882.
58. Jensen AA, Leffers H. Emerging endocrine disrupters: perfluoroalkylated substances. Int J Androl 2008; 31: 161-169.
59. Begley TH. Migration of fluorochemical paper additives from food-contact paper into foods and food simulants. Food Addit Contam Part A 2008; 25: 384-390.
60. Lau C. Perfluoroalkyl acids: a review of monitoring and toxicological findings. Toxicol Sci 2007; 99: 366-394.
61. Halldorsson TI, Rytter D, Haug LS etal. Prenatal exposure to perfluorooctanoate and risk of overweight at 20 years of age: a prospective cohort study. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 668-673.
62. Miyawaki J, Sakayama K, Kato H etal. Perinatal and postnatal exposure to bisphenol A increases adipose tissue mass and serum cholesterol level in mice. J Atheroscler Thromb 2007; 14: 245-252.
63. Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A etal. Association of urinary bisphenol A concentration with adults medical disorders and laboratory abnormalities in adults. JAMA 2008; 300: 1303-1310.
64. Hatch EE, Nelson JW, Qureshi MM etal. Association of urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations with body mass index and waist circumference: a cross-sectional study of NHANES data, 1999-2002. Environ Health 2008; 7: 27.
65. Butte NF, Ekelund U, Westerterp KR. Assessing physical activity using wearable monitors: measures of physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2012; 44: S5-S12.
66. Speakman JR, Westerterp KR. Associations between energy demands, physical activity and body composition in adult humans between 18 and 96 years of age. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 92: 826-834.
67. Ekelund U, Aman J, Yngve A, Renman C, Westerterp K, Sjöström M. Physical activity but not energy expenditure is reduced in obese adolescents: a case-control study. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 76: 935-941.
68. Westerterp KR, Plasqui G. Physically active lifestyle does not decrease the risk of fattening. PLoS ONE 2009; 4: e4745.
69. Sallis JF. Age-related decline in physical activity: a synthesis of human and animal studies. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1598-1600.
70. Malina RM. Promoting physical activity in children and adolescents: a review. Clin J Sport Med 2008; 18: 549-550.
71. Teran-Garcia M, Rankinen T, Bouchard C. Genes, exercise, growth, and the sedentary, obese child. J Appl Physiol 2008; 105: 988-1001.
72. Eisenmann JC, Wickel EE. The biological basis of physical activity in children: revisited. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2009; 21: 257-372.
73. Sherar LB, Cumming SP, Eisenmann JC, Baxter-Jones AD, Malina RM. Adolescent biological maturity and physical activity: biology meets behavior. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2010; 22: 332-349.
74. Malina RM. Physical activity and fitness: pathways from childhood to adulthood. Am J Hum Biol 2001; 13: 162-172.
75. Rutters F, Gerver WJ, Nieuwenhuizen AG, Verhoef SP, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Sleep duration and body-weight development during puberty in a Dutch children cohort. Int J Obes 2010; 34: 1508-1514.
76. Rutters F, Nieuwenhuizen AG, Bouwman F, Mariman E, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Associations between a single nucleotide polymorphism of the FTO gene (rs9939609) and obesity-related characteristics over time during puberty in a Dutch children cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96: E939-E942.
77. Rutters F, Nieuwenhuizen AG, Verhoef SP, Lemmens SG, Vogels N, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. The relationship between leptin, gonadotropic hormones, and body composition during puberty in a Dutch children cohort. Eur J Endocrinol 2009; 160: 973-978.
78. Adamantidis A, de Lecea L. Sleep and metabolism: shared circuits, new connections. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2008; 19: 362-370.
79. Vanitallie TB. Sleep and energy balance: interactive homeostatic systems. Metabolism 2006; 55 (10 Suppl. 2): S30-S35.
80. Plazzi G, Parmeggiani A, Mignot E etal. Narcolepsy-cataplexy associated with precocious puberty. Neurology 2006; 66: 1577-1579.
81. Flint J, Kothare SV, Zihlif M etal. Association between inadequate sleep and insulin resistance in obese children. J Pediatr 2007; 150: 364-369.
82. Hitze B, Bosy-Westphal A, Bielfeldt F etal. Determinants and impact of sleep duration in children and adolescents: data of the Kiel Obesity Prevention Study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2009; 63: 739-746.
83. Raikkonen K, Matthews KA, Pesonen AK etal. Poor sleep and altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical and sympatho-adrenal-medullary system activity in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 2254-2261.
84. Colten HR, Altevogt BM (eds). Sleep Disorders and Sleep Deprivation: An Unmet Public Health Problem. National Academies Press: Washington, DC, 2006.
85. Taheri S, Lin L, Austin D etal. Short sleep duration is associated with reduced leptin, elevated ghrelin, and increased body mass index. PLoS Med 2004; 1: 210-217.
86. Spiegel K, Tasali E, Penev P, Van Cauter E. Brief communication: sleep curtailment in healthy young men is associated with decreased leptin levels, elevated ghrelin levels, and increased hunger and appetite. Ann Intern Med 2004; 141: 846-850.
87. Spiegel K, Leproult R, Van Cauter E. Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function. Lancet 1999; 354: 1435-1439.
88. Westerterp KR, Speakman JR. Physical activity energy expenditure has not declined since the 1980s and matches energy expenditures of wild mammals. Int J Obes 2008; 32: 1256-1263.
89. Simpson SJ, Raubenheimer D. The Nature of Nutrition: A Unifying Framework from Animal Adaptation to Human Obesity. Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, 2012.
90. Griffioen-Roose S, Mars M, Siebelink E, Finlayson G, Tomé D, de Graaf C. Protein status elicits compensatory changes in food intake and food preferences. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 95: 32-38.
91. Simpon SJ, Raubenheimer D. Obesity: the protein leverage hypothesis. Obes Rev 2005; 6: 133-142.
92. Gosby AK, Conigrave AD, Lau NS etal. Testing protein leverage in lean humans: a randomised controlled experimental study. PLoS ONE 2011; 6: e25929.
93. Bray GA, Smith SR, Jonge L etal. Effect of dietary protein content on weight gain, energy expenditure, and body composition during overeating: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2012; 307: 47-55.
94. Austin GL, Ogden LG, Hill JO. Trends in carbohydrate, fat, and protein intakes and association with energy intakes in normal-weight, overweight, and obese individuals: 1971-2006. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 93: 836-843.
95. Brooks RC, Simpson SJ, Raubenheimer D. The price of protein: combining evolutionary and economic analysis to understand excessive energy consumption. Obes Rev 2010; 11: 887-894.
96. Weigle DS, Breen PA, Matthys CC etal. A high-protein diet induces sustained reductions in appetite, ad libitum caloric intake, and body weight despite compensatory changes in diurnal plasma leptin and ghrelin concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 82: 41-48.
97. Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Nieuwenhuizen A, Tomé D, Soenen S, Westerterp KR. Dietary protein, weight loss, and weight maintenance. Annu Rev Nutr 2009; 29: 21-41.
98. VanEtten C. Goitrogens. In: Liener IE (ed.). Toxic Constituents of Plant Foodstuffs. Food Science and Technology. Academic Press: New York, 1969, pp. 103-142.
99. Drewnowski A, Gomez-Carneros C. Bitter taste, phytonutrients, and the consumer: a review. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72: 1424-1435.
100. Leopold AC, Ardrey R. Toxic substances in plants and the food habits of early man. Science 1972; 176: 512-514.
101. Bufe B, Breslin PA, Kuhn C etal. The molecular basis of individual differences in phenylthiocarbamide and propylthiouracil bitterness perception. Curr Biol 2005; 15: 322-327.
102. Sandell MA, Breslin PA. Variability in a taste-receptor gene determines whether we taste toxins in food. Curr Biol 2006; 16: R792-R794.
103. Yeomans MR, Durlach PJ, Tinley EM. Flavour liking and preference conditioned by caffeine in humans. Q J Exp Psychol 2005; 58: 47-58.
104. Bachmanov AA, Kiefer SW, Molina JC etal. Chemosensory factors influencing alcohol perception, preferences, and consumption. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2003; 27: 220-231.
105. Galef BG Jr. Enduring social enhancement of rats' preferences for the palatable and the piquant. Appetite 1989; 13: 81-92.
106. de Castro JM. Eating behavior: lessons from the real world of humans. Nutrition 2000; 16: 800-813.
107. Mennella JA, Pepino MY, Reed DR. Genetic and environmental determinants of bitter perception and sweet preferences. Pediatrics 2005; 115: e216-e222.
108. McDaniel AH, Reed DR. The human sweet tooth and its relationship to obesity. In: Berndanier CD, Moustaid-Moussa N (eds). Genomics and Proteomics in Nutrition. Marcel Dekker, Inc: New York, 2004, pp. 44-60.
109. Steiner JE, Glaser D, Hawilo ME, Berridge KC. Comparative expression of hedonic impact: affective reactions to taste by human infants and other primates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2001; 25: 53-74.
110. Coldwell SE, Oswald TK, Reed DR. A marker of growth differs between adolescents with high vs. low sugar preference. Physiol Behav 2009; 96: 574-580.
111. Fushan AA, Simons CT, Slack JP, Manichaikul A, Drayna D. Allelic polymorphism within the TAS1R3 promoter is associated with human taste sensitivity to sucrose. Curr Biol 2009; 19: 1288-1293.
112. Speakman JR, Levitsky DA, Allison DB etal. Set-points, settling points and some alternative models: theoretical options to understand how genes and environments combine to regulate body adiposity. Dis Model Mech 2011; 4: 733-745.
113. Speakman JR, Djafarian K, Stewart J, Jackson DM. Assortative mating for obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 86: 316-323.
114. Hebebrand J, Wulftange H, Goerg T etal. Epidemic obesity: are genetic factors involved via increased rates of assortative mating. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 345-353.
115. Fontaine KR, Robertson HT, Holst C etal. Is socioeconomic status of the rearing environment causally related to obesity in the offspring? PLoS ONE 2011; 6: e27692.
116. Ramlau-Hansen CH, Thulstrup AM, Nohr EA etal. Subfecundity in overweight and obese couples. Hum Reprod 2007; 22: 1634-1637.
117. Warbrick-Smith J, Behmer ST, Lee K-P, Raubenheimer D, Simpson SJ. Evolving resistance to obesity in an insect. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103: 14045-14049.
118. Mintz SW. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. Penguin Books: New York, 1986.
119. Desor JA, Beauchamp GK. Longitudinal changes in sweet preferences in humans. Physiol Behav 1987; 39: 639-641.
120. Sørensen TIA. Is obesity a healthy active accumulation of reserve energy in response to social insecurity read as an expected future lack of energy? Obes Facts 2012.
121. Sobal J, Stunkard AJ. Socioeconomic status and obesity: a review of the literature. Psychol Bull 1989; 105: 260-275.
122. Shrewsbury V, Wardle J. Socioeconomic status and adiposity in childhood: a systematic review of cross-sectional studies 1990-2005. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2008; 16: 275-284.
123. Lissau I, Sørensen TI. Parental neglect during childhood and increased risk of obesity in young adulthood. Lancet 1994; 343: 324-327.
124. Offer A, Pechey R, Ulijaszek S. Obesity under affluence varies by welfare regimes: the effect of fast food, insecurity, and inequality. Econ Hum Biol 2010; 8: 297-308.
125. Vamosi M, Heitmann BL, Thinggaard M, Kyvik KO. Parental care in childhood and obesity in adulthood: a study among twins. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2011; 17: 1-6.
126. Stunkard AJ, Sørensen TI. Obesity and socioeconomic status - a complex relation. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1036-1037.