The role of androgen and androgen receptor in skin-related disorders

Archives of Dermatological Research

Volumn 304, Issue 7, 2012, Pages 499-510

  Lai, Jiann Jyh ^a   Chang, Philip ^a   Lai, Kuo Pao ^a   Chen, Lumin ^a,b   Chang, Chawnshang ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER   (United States)

^b CHINA MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (Taiwan)

Author keywords

Acne vulgaris; Androgen; Androgen receptor; Androgenetic alopecia; Hirsutism; Wound healing

Indexed keywords

17BETA (N,N DIETHYLCARBAMOYL) 4 METHYL 4 AZA 5ALPHA ANDROSTAN 3 ONE; 4 [3 (4 HYDROXYBUTYL) 4,4 DIMETHYL 2,5 DIOXO 1 IMIDAZOLIDINYL] 2 TRIFLUOROMETHYLBENZONITRILE; 4,7BETA DIMETHYL 4 AZACHOLESTAN 3 ONE; 5 HYDROXY 1,7 BIS (3,4 DIMETHOXYPHENYL) 1,4,6 HEPTATRIEN 3 ONE; ANDROGEN; ANDROGEN RECEPTOR; ANDROGEN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANDROSTANOLONE; ANTIANDROGEN; ASC J 9; CHLORMADINONE; CYPROTERONE; EFLORNITHINE; FINASTERIDE; FLUTAMIDE; ISOTRETINOIN; MINOXIDIL; SOMATOMEDIN C; SPIRONOLACTONE; STEROID 5ALPHA REDUCTASE; STEROID 5ALPHA REDUCTASE 1; STEROID 5ALPHA REDUCTASE 2; STEROID 5ALPHA REDUCTASE 3; TETRACYCLINE; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR FKHR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA ANTIBODY; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ACNE VULGARIS; ANDROGEN RECEPTOR GENE; BIRTH DEFECT; BREAST TENDERNESS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG SAFETY; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FATIGUE; GASTRITIS; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC RISK; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GYNECOMASTIA; HIRSUTISM; HUMAN; IMPOTENCE; LIVER CANCER; LIVER TOXICITY; MALE TYPE ALOPECIA; MENSTRUAL IRREGULARITY; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECEPTOR BINDING; RECEPTOR GENE; REVIEW; SEBORRHEA; SKIN DISEASE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; WOUND HEALING;

ACNE VULGARIS; ALOPECIA; ANDROGEN ANTAGONISTS; ANDROGENS; ANIMALS; HIRSUTISM; HUMANS; MICE; MICE, KNOCKOUT; MOLECULAR TARGETED THERAPY; RECEPTORS, ANDROGEN; WOUND HEALING;

EID: 84866500823     PISSN: 03403696     EISSN: 1432069X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00403-012-1265-x     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Aggarwal BB, Shishodia S, Takada Y, Jackson-Bernitsas D, Ahn KS, Sethi G, Ichikawa H (2006) TNF blockade: an inflammatory issue. Ernst Schering Res Found Workshop 56: 161-186
2. Arias NH, Houssay AB, Pieretti SA (1982) Effects of cyproterone and tamoxifen upon the hair waves in mice. Acta Physiol Lat Am 32(4):261-266
3. Ashcroft GS, Mills SJ (2002) Androgen receptor-mediated inhibition of cutaneous wound healing. J Clin Invest 110(5):615-624 (Pubitemid 34988785)
4. Ashcroft GS, Mills SJ, Flanders KC, Lyakh LA, Anzano MA, Gilliver SC, Roberts AB (2003) Role of Smad3 in the hormonal modulation of in vivo wound healing responses. Wound Repair Regen 11(6):468-473 (Pubitemid 37467730)
5. Ashcroft GS, Yang X, Glick AB, Weinstein M, Letterio JL, Mizel DE, Anzano M, Greenwell-Wild T, Wahl SM, Deng C, Roberts AB (1999) Mice lacking Smad3 show accelerated wound healing and an impaired local inflammatory response. Nat Cell Biol 1(5):260-266 (Pubitemid 129495775)
6. Ben-Amitai D, Laron Z (2011) Effect of insulin-like growth factor-1 deficiency or administration on the occurrence of acne. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 25(8):950-954
7. Bernerd F, Schweizer J, Demarchez M (1996) Dermal cysts of the rhino mouse develop into unopened sebaceous glands. Arch Dermatol Res 288(10):586-595 (Pubitemid 26335334)
8. Boudou P, Chivot M, Vexiau P, Soliman H, Villette JM, Julien R, Belanger A, Fiet J (1994) Evidence for decreased androgen 5 alpha-reduction in skin and liver of men with severe acne after 13-cis-retinoic acid treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78(5): 1064-1069 (Pubitemid 24143024)
9. Boudou P, Soliman H, Chivot M, Villette JM, Vexiau P, Belanger A, Fiet J (1995) Effect of oral isotretinoin treatment on skin androgen receptor levels in male acneic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80(4):1158-1161
10. Brennan FM, McInnes IB (2008) Evidence that cytokines play a role in rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Invest 118(11):3537-3545
11. Cantagrel V, Lefeber DJ, Ng BG, Guan Z, Silhavy JL, Bielas SL, Lehle L, Hombauer H, Adamowicz M, Swiezewska E, De Brouwer AP, Blumel P, Sykut-Cegielska J, Houliston S, Swistun D, Ali BR, Dobyns WB, Babovic-Vuksanovic D, van Bokhoven H, Wevers RA, Raetz CR, Freeze HH, Morava E, Al-Gazali L, Gleeson JG (2010) SRD5A3 is required for converting polyprenol to dolichol and is mutated in a congenital glycosylation disorder. Cell 142(2):203-217
12. Chapman MG, Dowsett M, Dewhurst CJ, Jeffcoate SL (1985) Spironolactone in combination with an oral contraceptive: an alternative treatment for hirsutism. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 92(9): 983-985 (Pubitemid 15018884)
13. Chapman MG, Katz M, Dowsett M, Hague W, Jeffcoate SL, Dewhurst CJ (1986) Spironolactone in the treatment of hirsutism. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 65(4):349-350 (Pubitemid 16059640)
14. Chen W, Obermayer-Pietsch B, Hong JB, Melnik B, Yamasaki O, Dessinioti C, Ju Q, Liakou A, Al-Khuzaei S, Katsambas A, Ring J, Zouboulis C (2011) Acne-associated syndromes: models for better understanding of acne pathogenesis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 25(6):637-646
15. Chen W, Thiboutot D, Zouboulis CC (2002) Cutaneous androgen metabolism: basic research and clinical perspectives. J Invest Dermatol 119(5):992-1007 (Pubitemid 35430476)
16. Chen W, Zouboulis CC, Fritsch M, Blume-Peytavi U, Kodelja V, Goerdt S, Luu-The V, Orfanos CE (1998) Evidence of heterogeneity and quantitative differences of the type 1 5alphareductase expression in cultured human skin cells - evidence of its presence in melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol 110(1):84-89 (Pubitemid 28086070)
17. Chen W, Zouboulis CC, Orfanos CE (1996) The 5 alphareductase system and its inhibitors. Recent development and its perspective in treating androgen-dependent skin disorders. Dermatology 193(3):177-184
18. Choudhry R, Hodgins MB, Van der Kwast TH, Brinkmann AO, Boersma WJ (1992) Localization of androgen receptors in human skin by immunohistochemistry: implications for the hormonal regulation of hair growth, sebaceous glands and sweat glands. J Endocrinol 133(3):467-475
19. Chuang KH, Altuwaijri S, Li G, Lai JJ, Chu CY, Lai KP, Lin HY, Hsu JW, Keng P, Wu MC, Chang C (2009) Neutropenia with impaired host defense against microbial infection in mice lacking androgen receptor. J Exp Med 206(5):1181- 1199
20. Cibula D, Hill M, Vohradnikova O, Kuzel D, Fanta M, Zivny J (2000) The role of androgens in determining acne severity in adult women. Br J Dermatol 143(2):399-404 (Pubitemid 30650412)
21. Danby FW (2010) Nutrition and acne. Clin Dermatol 28(6): 598-604
22. Dejean AS, Hedrick SM, Kerdiles YM (2011) Highly specialized role of Forkhead box O transcription factors in the immune system. Antioxid Redox Signal 14(4):663-674
23. Demidowich AP, Freeman AF, Kuhns DB, Aksentijevich I, Gallin JI, Turner ML, Kastner DL, Holland SM (2012) Brief Report: genotype, phenotype, and clinical course in five patients with PAPA syndrome (pyogenic sterile arthritis, pyoderma gangrenosum, and acne). Arthr Rheum 64(6):2022-2027
24. Derynck R, Zhang YE (2003) Smad-dependent and Smadindependent pathways in TGF-beta family signalling. Nature 425(6958):577-584 (Pubitemid 37280136)
25. Diamanti-Kandarakis E (1999) Current aspects of antiandrogen therapy in women. Curr Pharm Des 5(9):707-723 (Pubitemid 29510793)
26. Dinh QQ, Sinclair R (2007) Female pattern hair loss: current treatment concepts. Clin Interv Aging 2(2):189-199
27. Ellis JA, Stebbing M, Harrap SB (2001) Polymorphism of the androgen receptor gene is associated with male pattern baldness. J Invest Dermatol 116(3):452-455 (Pubitemid 32202911)
28. Engeland CG, Bosch JA, Cacioppo JT, Marucha PT (2006) Mucosal wound healing: the roles of age and sex. Arch Surg 141(12):1193-1197 (discussion 1198 (Pubitemid 44956632)
29. Fan W, Yanase T, Morinaga H, Okabe T, Nomura M, Daitoku H, Fukamizu A, Kato S, Takayanagi R, Nawata H (2007) Insulin-like growth factor 1/insulin signaling activates androgen signaling through direct interactions of Foxo1 with androgen receptor. J Biol Chem 282(10):7329-7338 (Pubitemid 47093686)
30. Fang Z, Zhang T, Dizeyi N, Chen S, Wang H, Swanson KD, Cai C, Balk SP, Yuan X (2012) Androgen receptor enhances p27 degradation in prostate cancer cells through rapid and selective TORC2 activation. J Biol Chem 287(3):2090-2098
31. Fimmel S, Zouboulis CC (2005) Influence of physiological androgen levels on wound healing and immune status in men. Aging Male 8(3-4):166-174 (Pubitemid 43068307)
32. Fritsch M, Orfanos CE, Zouboulis CC (2001) Sebocytes are the key regulators of androgen homeostasis in human skin. J Invest Dermatol 116(5):793-800 (Pubitemid 32467662)
33. Garza LA, Liu Y, Yang Z, Alagesan B, Lawson JA, Norberg SM, Loy DE, Zhao T, Blatt HB, Stanton DC, Carrasco L, Ahluwalia G, Fischer SM, FitzGerald GA, Cotsarelis G (2012) Prostaglandin D2 INHIBITS hair growth and is elevated in bald scalp of men with androgenetic alopecia. Sci Transl Med 4(126):126ra134
34. George R, Clarke S, Thiboutot D (2008) Hormonal therapy for acne. Semin Cutan Med Surg 27(3):188-196
35. Gilliver SC, Ashcroft GS (2007) Sex steroids and cutaneous wound healing: the contrasting influences of estrogens and androgens. Climacteric 10(4):276-288 (Pubitemid 47123946)
36. Gilliver SC, Ashworth JJ, Mills SJ, Hardman MJ, Ashcroft GS (2006) Androgens modulate the inflammatory response during acute wound healing. J Cell Sci 119(Pt 4):722-732
37. Gilliver SC, Ruckshanthi JP, Atkinson SJ, Ashcroft GS (2007) Androgens influence expression of matrix proteins and proteolytic factors during cutaneous wound healing. Lab Invest 87(9): 871-881 (Pubitemid 47267813)
38. Gilliver SC, Ruckshanthi JP, Hardman MJ, Zeef LA, Ashcroft GS (2009) 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) retards wound closure by inhibiting re-epithelialization. J Pathol 217(1):73-82
39. Gomez Vazquez M, Navarra Amayuelas R, Lamarca M, Baquedano L, Romero Ruiz S, Vilar-Checa E, Iniesta MD (2011) Ethinylestradiol/chlormadinone acetate for use in dermatological disorders. Am J Clin Dermatol 12(Suppl 1):13-19
40. Goren I, Muller E, Schiefelbein D, Christen U, Pfeilschifter J, Muhl H, Frank S (2007) Systemic anti-TNFalpha treatment restores diabetes-impaired skin repair in ob/ob mice by inactivation of macrophages. J Invest Dermatol 127(9):2259-2267 (Pubitemid 47258485)
41. Griffin JE, Wilson JD (1989) The androgen resistance syndrome: 5a-reductase deficiency, testicular feminization, and related disorders. In: Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly WS DV (eds) The metabolic basis of inherited disease. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 1919-1944
42. Gruber DM, Sator MO, Joura EA, Kokoschka EM, Heinze G, Huber JC (1998) Topical cyproterone acetate treatment in women with acne: a placebo-controlled trial. Arch Dermatol 134(4):459-463 (Pubitemid 28207629)
43. Guevara-Aguirre J, Balasubramanian P, Guevara-Aguirre M, Wei M, Madia F, Cheng CW, Hwang D, Martin-Montalvo A, Saavedra J, Ingles S, de Cabo R, Cohen P, Longo VD (2011) Growth hormone receptor deficiency is associated with a major reduction in pro-aging signaling, cancer, and diabetes in humans. Sci Transl Med 3(70):70ra13
44. Guido M, Romualdi D, Campagna G, Ricciardi L, Bompiani A, Lanzone A (2010) Ethinylestradiol-chlormadinone acetate combination for the treatment of hirsutism and hormonal alterations of normal-weight women with polycystic ovary syndrome: evaluation of the metabolic impact. Reprod Sci 17(8): 767-775
45. Hamilton JB (1942) Male hormone stimulation is prerequisite and an incitant in common baldness. Am J Anat 71:451-480
46. Hamzavi I, Tan E, Shapiro J, Lui H (2007) A randomized bilateral vehicle-controlled study of eflornithine cream combined with laser treatment versus laser treatment alone for facial hirsutism in women. J Am Acad Dermatol 57(1):54-59 (Pubitemid 46899263)
47. Heemers HV, Tindall DJ (2007) Androgen receptor (AR) coregulators: a diversity of functions converging on and regulating the AR transcriptional complex. Endocr Rev 28(7): 778-808 (Pubitemid 350294296)
48. Henze C, Hinney B, Wuttke W (1998) Incidence of increased androgen levels in patients suffering from acne. Dermatology 196(1):53-54 (Pubitemid 28116039)
49. Hibberts NA, Howell AE, Randall VA (1998) Balding hair follicle dermal papilla cells contain higher levels of androgen receptors than those from non-balding scalp. J Endocrinol 156(1):59-65 (Pubitemid 28049864)
50. Hillmer AM, Flaquer A, Hanneken S, Eigelshoven S, Kortum AK, Brockschmidt FF, Golla A, Metzen C, Thiele H, Kolberg S, Reinartz R, Betz RC, Ruzicka T, Hennies HC, Kruse R, Nothen MM (2008) Genome-wide scan and fine-mapping linkage study of androgenetic alopecia reveals a locus on chromosome 3q26. Am J Hum Genet 82(3):737-743
51. Hillmer AM, Hanneken S, Ritzmann S, Becker T, Freudenberg J, Brockschmidt FF, Flaquer A, Freudenberg-Hua Y, Jamra RA, Metzen C, Heyn U, Schweiger N, Betz RC, Blaumeiser B, Hampe J, Schreiber S, Schulze TG, Hennies HC, Schumacher J, Propping P, Ruzicka T, Cichon S, Wienker TF, Kruse R, Nothen MM (2005) Genetic variation in the human androgen receptor gene is the major determinant of common early-onset androgenetic alopecia. Am J Hum Genet 77(1):140-148 (Pubitemid 40848045)
52. Imperato-McGinley J, Gautier T, Cai LQ, Yee B, Epstein J, Pochi P (1993) The androgen control of sebum production. Studies of subjects with dihydrotestosterone deficiency and complete androgen insensitivity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76(2): 524-528 (Pubitemid 23073086)
53. Inui S, Itami S (2011) Molecular basis of androgenetic alopecia: from androgen to paracrine mediators through dermal papilla. J Dermatol Sci 61(1):1-6
54. Jenkins EP, Andersson S, Imperato-McGinley J, Wilson JD, Russell DW (1992) Genetic and pharmacological evidence for more than one human steroid 5 alpha-reductase. J Clin Invest 89(1):293-300
55. Kanda N, Watanabe S (2005) Regulatory roles of sex hormones in cutaneous biology and immunology. J Dermatol Sci 38(1): 1-7 (Pubitemid 40410625)
56. Kimura S, Matsumoto T, Matsuyama R, Shiina H, Sato T, Takeyama K, Kato S (2007) Androgen receptor function in folliculogenesis and its clinical implication in premature ovarian failure. Trends Endocrinol Metab 18(5):183-189 (Pubitemid 46962300)
57. Kitagawa T, Matsuda K, Inui S, Takenaka H, Katoh N, Itami S, Kishimoto S, Kawata M (2009) Keratinocyte growth inhibition through the modification of Wnt signaling by androgen in balding dermal papilla cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94(4): 1288-1294
58. Klinger B, Anin S, Silbergeld A, Eshet R, Laron Z (1998) Development of hyperandrogenism during treatment with insulin- like growth factor-I (IGF-I) in female patients with Laron syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 48(1):81-87
59. Kuster W, Happle R (1984) The inheritance of common baldness: two B or not two B? J Am Acad Dermatol 11(5 Pt 1): 921-926
60. Kvedar JC, Baden HP, Levine L (1988) Selective inhibition by minoxidil of prostacyclin production by cells in culture. Biochem Pharmacol 37(5):867-874 (Pubitemid 18058458)
61. Lai JJ, Lai KP, Chuang KH, Chang P, Yu IC, Lin WJ, Chang C (2009) Monocyte/macrophage androgen receptor suppresses cutaneous wound healing in mice by enhancing local TNF-alpha expression. J Clin Invest 119(12):3739-3751
62. Leyden J, Bergfeld W, Drake L, Dunlap F, Goldman MP, Gottlieb AB, Heffernan MP, Hickman JG, Hordinsky M, Jarrett M, Kang S, Lucky A, Peck G, Phillips T, Rapaport M, Roberts J, Savin R, Sawaya ME, Shalita A, Shavin J, Shaw JC, Stein L, Stewart D, Strauss J, Swinehart J, Swinyer L, Thiboutot D, Washenik K, Weinstein G, Whiting D, Pappas F, Sanchez M, Terranella L, Waldstreicher J (2004) A systemic type I 5 alphareductase inhibitor is ineffective in the treatment of acne vulgaris. J Am Acad Dermatol 50(3):443-447 (Pubitemid 38316140)
63. Li L, Tang L, Baranov E, Yang M, Amoh Y, Katsuoka K, Hoffman RM (2010) Selective induction of apoptosis in the hamster flank sebaceous gland organ by a topical liposome 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor: a treatment strategy for acne. J Dermatol 37(2):156-162
64. Lin HY, Xu Q, Yeh S, Wang RS, Sparks JD, Chang C (2005) Insulin and leptin resistance with hyperleptinemia in mice lacking androgen receptor. Diabetes 54(6):1717-1725 (Pubitemid 40770762)
65. Lobo RA, Shoupe D, Serafini P, Brinton D, Horton R (1985) The effects of two doses of spironolactone on serum androgens and anagen hair in hirsute women. Fertil Steril 43(2):200-205 (Pubitemid 15127342)
66. Lookingbill DP, Abrams BB, Ellis CN, Jegasothy BV, Lucky AW, Ortiz-Ferrer LC, Savin RC, Shupack JL, Stiller MJ, Zone JJ et al (1992) Inocoterone and acne. The effect of a topical antiandrogen: results of a multicenter clinical trial. Arch Dermatol 128(9):1197-1200
67. Ma Q, Fu W, Li P, Nicosia SV, Jenster G, Zhang X, Bai W (2009) FoxO1 mediates PTEN suppression of androgen receptor N- and C-terminal interactions and coactivator recruitment. Mol Endocrinol 23(2):213-225
68. Melnik B (2012) Diet in acne: further evidence for the role of nutrient signalling in acne pathogenesis. Acta Derm Venereol 92(3):228-231
69. Melnik BC (2009) Role of FGFR2-signaling in the pathogenesis of acne. Dermatoendocrinol 1(3):141-156
70. Melnik BC (2010) FoxO1 - the key for the pathogenesis and therapy of acne? J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 8(2):105-114
71. Melnik BC (2011) Evidence for acne-promoting effects of milk and other insulinotropic dairy products. Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program 67:131-145
72. Melnik BC (2011) Isotretinoin and FoxO1: a scientific hypothesis. Dermatoendocrinol 3(3):141-165
73. Melnik BC, John SM, Schmitz G (2011) Over-stimulation of insulin/IGF-1 signaling by western diet may promote diseases of civilization: lessons learnt from Laron syndrome. Nutr Metab (Lond) 8:41
74. Melnik BC, Schmitz G (2009) Role of insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1, hyperglycaemic food and milk consumption in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris. Exp Dermatol 18(10):833-841
75. Messenger AG, Rundegren J (2004) Minoxidil: mechanisms of action on hair growth. Br J Dermatol 150(2):186-194 (Pubitemid 38352454)
76. Mirshahpanah P, Maibach HI (2007) Models in acnegenesis. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 26(3):195-202 (Pubitemid 47237794)
77. Miyamoto H, Yang Z, Chen YT, Ishiguro H, Uemura H, Kubota Y, Nagashima Y, Chang YJ, Hu YC, Tsai MY, Yeh S, Messing EM, Chang C (2007) Promotion of bladder cancer development and progression by androgen receptor signals. J Natl Cancer Inst 99(7):558-568 (Pubitemid 47078733)
78. Moghetti P, Castello R, Negri C, Tosi F, Magnani CM, Fontanarosa MC, Armanini D, Muggeo M (1995) Flutamide in the treatment of hirsutism: long-term clinical effects, endocrine changes, and androgen receptor behavior. Fertil Steril 64(3): 511-517
79. Moghetti P, Toscano V (2006) Treatment of hirsutism and acne in hyperandrogenism. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 20(2):221-234 (Pubitemid 43842926)
80. Moghetti P, Tosi F, Tosti A, Negri C, Misciali C, Perrone F, Caputo M, Muggeo M, Castello R (2000) Comparison of spironolactone, flutamide, and finasteride efficacy in the treatment of hirsutism: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85(1):89-94 (Pubitemid 32268796)
81. Monk E, Shalita A, Siegel DM (2011) Clinical applications of non-antimicrobial tetracyclines in dermatology. Pharmacol Res 63(2):130-145
82. Naito A, Sato T, Matsumoto T, Takeyama K, Yoshino T, Kato S, Ohdera M (2008) Dihydrotestosterone inhibits murine hair growth via the androgen receptor. Br J Dermatol 159(2):300-305 (Pubitemid 352009860)
83. Nieves NJ, Ahrens JM, Plum LA, DeLuca HF, Clagett-Dame M (2010) Identification of a unique subset of 2-methylene-19-nor analogs of vitamin D with comedolytic activity in the rhino mouse. J Invest Dermatol 130(10):2359-2367
84. Olsen EA, Hordinsky M, Whiting D, Stough D, Hobbs S, Ellis ML, Wilson T, Rittmaster RS (2006) The importance of dual 5alpha-reductase inhibition in the treatment of male pattern hair loss: results of a randomized placebo-controlled study of dutasteride versus finasteride. J Am Acad Dermatol 55(6): 1014-1023 (Pubitemid 44716474)
85. Otberg N, Finner AM, Shapiro J (2007) Androgenetic alopecia. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 36(2):379-398 (Pubitemid 46817885)
86. Pang Y, He CD, Liu Y, Wang KB, Xiao T, Wang YK, Zhu H, Wei B, Zhao N, Jiang Y, Wei HC, Chen HD (2008) Combination of short CAG and GGN repeats in the androgen receptor gene is associated with acne risk in North East China. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 22(12):1445-1451
87. Pochi PE, Strauss JS (1974) Endocrinologic control of the development and activity of the human sebaceous gland. J Invest Dermatol 62(3):191-201
88. Quigley CA, De Bellis A, Marschke KB, el-Awady MK, Wilson EM, French FS (1995) Androgen receptor defects: historical, clinical, and molecular perspectives. Endocr Rev 16(3):271-321
89. Rahman F, Christian HC (2007) Non-classical actions of testosterone: an update. Trends Endocrinol Metab 18(10):371-378 (Pubitemid 350137764)
90. Randall VA, Thornton MJ, Hamada K, Redfern CP, Nutbrown M, Ebling FJ, Messenger AG (1991) Androgens and the hair follicle. Cultured human dermal papilla cells as a model system. Ann N Y Acad Sci 642:355-375
91. Randall VA, Thornton MJ, Messenger AG (1992) Cultured dermal papilla cells from androgen-dependent human hair follicles (e.g. beard) contain more androgen receptors than those from non-balding areas of scalp. J Endocrinol 133(1):141-147
92. Richards JB, Yuan X, Geller F, Waterworth D, Bataille V, Glass D, Song K, Waeber G, Vollenweider P, Aben KK, Kiemeney LA, Walters B, Soranzo N, Thorsteinsdottir U, Kong A, Rafnar T, Deloukas P, Sulem P, Stefansson H, Stefansson K, Spector TD, Mooser V (2008) Male-pattern baldness susceptibility locus at 20p11. Nat Genet 40(11):1282-1284
93. Samson M, Labrie F, Zouboulis CC, Luu-The V (2010) Biosynthesis of dihydrotestosterone by a pathway that does not require testosterone as an intermediate in the SZ95 sebaceous gland cell line. J Invest Dermatol 130(2):602-604
94. Sawaya ME, Shalita AR (1998) Androgen receptor polymorphisms (CAG repeat lengths) in androgenetic alopecia, hirsutism, and acne. J Cutan Med Surg 3(1):9-15 (Pubitemid 28352163)
95. Schmidt JB (1998) Other antiandrogens. Dermatology 196(1): 153-157 (Pubitemid 28116064)
96. Schulte-Hermann R, Ohde G, Schuppler J, Timmermann- Trosiener I (1981) Enhanced proliferation of putative preneoplastic cells in rat liver following treatment with the tumor promoters phenobarbital, hexachlorocyclohexane, steroid compounds, and nafenopin. Cancer Res 41(6):2556-2562 (Pubitemid 11111472)
97. Seiffert K, Seltmann H, Fritsch M, Zouboulis CC (2007) Inhibition of 5alpha-reductase activity in SZ95 sebocytes and Ha- CaT keratinocytes in vitro. Horm Metab Res 39(2):141-148 (Pubitemid 46535572)
98. Shaw JC (1996) Antiandrogen therapy in dermatology. Int J Dermatol 35(11):770-778 (Pubitemid 26391826)
99. Sinclair R, Greenland KJ, Egmond S, Hoedemaker C, Chapman A, Zajac JD (2007) Men with Kennedy disease have a reduced risk of androgenetic alopecia. Br J Dermatol 157(2):290-294 (Pubitemid 47083864)
100. Slayden SM, Moran C, Sams WM Jr, Boots LR, Azziz R (2001) Hyperandrogenemia in patients presenting with acne. Fertil Steril 75(5):889-892 (Pubitemid 32401665)
101. Smith RN, Mann NJ, Braue A, Makelainen H, Varigos GA (2007) A low-glycemic-load diet improves symptoms in acne vulgaris patients: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 86(1):107-115 (Pubitemid 47041599)
102. Smith TM, Gilliland K, Clawson GA, Thiboutot D (2008) IGF-1 induces SREBP-1 expression and lipogenesis in SEB-1 sebocytes via activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt pathway. J Invest Dermatol 128(5):1286-1293 (Pubitemid 351543201)
103. Sundberg JP, King LE, Bascom C (2001) Animal models for male pattern (androgenetic) alopecia. Eur J Dermatol 11(4): 321-325 (Pubitemid 32623328)
104. Treister NS, Richards SM, Suzuki T, Jensen RV, Sullivan DA (2005) Influence of androgens on gene expression in the BALB/ c mouse submandibular gland. J Dent Res 84(12):1187-1192 (Pubitemid 43827790)
105. Uemura M, Tamura K, Chung S, Honma S, Okuyama A, Nakamura Y, Nakagawa H (2008) Novel 5 alpha-steroid reductase (SRD5A3, type-3) is overexpressed in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Cancer Sci 99(1):81-86 (Pubitemid 350239034)
106. Unluhizarci K, Ozel D, Tanriverdi F, Karaca Z, Kelestimur F (2009) A comparison between finasteride, flutamide, and finasteride plus flutamide combination in the treatment of hirsutism. J Endocrinol Invest 32(1):37-40
107. van de Wijngaart DJ, Dubbink HJ, van Royen ME, Trapman J, Jenster G (2012) Androgen receptor coregulators: recruitment via the coactivator binding groove. Mol Cell Endocrinol 352 (1-2):57-69
108. Vora S, Ovhal A, Jerajani H, Nair N, Chakrabortty A (2008) Correlation of facial sebum to serum insulin-like growth factor- 1 in patients with acne. Br J Dermatol 159(4):990-991
109. Wysowski DK, Freiman JP, Tourtelot JB, Horton ML 3rd (1993) Fatal and nonfatal hepatotoxicity associated with flutamide. Ann Intern Med 118(11):860-864 (Pubitemid 23145410)
110. Xia Y, Cho S, Howard RS, Maggio KL (2012) Topical eflornithine hydrochloride improves the effectiveness of standard laser hair removal for treating pseudofolliculitis barbae: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Acad Dermatol In press.
111. Yang Z, Chang YJ, Yu IC, Yeh S, Wu CC, Miyamoto H, Merry DE, Sobue G, Chen LM, Chang SS, Chang C (2007) ASC-J9 ameliorates spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy phenotype via degradation of androgen receptor. Nat Med 13(3):348-353 (Pubitemid 46376683)
112. Yang Z, Yu H, Cheng B, Tang W, Dong Y, Xiao C, He L (2009) Relationship between the CAG repeat polymorphism in the androgen receptor gene and acne in the Han ethnic group. Dermatology 218(4):302-306
113. Ye F, Imamura K, Imanishi N, Rhodes L, Uno H (1997) Effects of topical antiandrogen and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors on sebaceous glands in male fuzzy rats. Skin Pharmacol 10(5-6):288-297 (Pubitemid 28021556)
114. Yeh S, Tsai MY, Xu Q, Mu XM, Lardy H, Huang KE, Lin H, Yeh SD, Altuwaijri S, Zhou X, Xing L, Boyce BF, Hung MC, Zhang S, Gan L, Chang C (2002) Generation and characterization of androgen receptor knockout (ARKO) mice: an in vivo model for the study of androgen functions in selective tissues. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99(21):13498-13503 (Pubitemid 35215410)
115. Zhu H,Ma H, Ni H,Ma XH,Mills N, Yang ZM(2004) Expression and regulation of lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase in rat testis and epididymis. Biol Reprod 70(4):1088-1095 (Pubitemid 38387720)
116. Zhuo FL, Xu W, Wang L, Wu Y, Xu ZL, Zhao JY (2012) Androgen receptor gene polymorphisms and risk for androgenetic alopecia: a meta-analysis. Clin Exp Dermatol 37(2):104-111
117. Zouboulis CC, Chen WC, Thornton MJ, Qin K, Rosenfield R (2007) Sexual hormones in human skin. Horm Metab Res 39(2):85-95 (Pubitemid 46540281)
118. Zouboulis CC, Degitz K (2004) Androgen action on human skin - from basic research to clinical significance. Exp Dermatol 13(Suppl 4):5-10 (Pubitemid 39654434)