Genome-wide association study of neurocognitive impairment and dementia in HIV-infected adults

American Journal of Medical Genetics, Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics

Volumn 159 B, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 669-683

  Levine, Andrew J ^a   Service, Susan ^b   Miller, Eric N ^a   Reynolds, Sandra M ^c   Singer, Elyse J ^a   Shapshak, Paul ^d   Martin, Eileen M ^e   Sacktor, Ned ^f   Becker, James T ^g   Jacobson, Lisa P ^c   Thompson, Paul ^a   Freimer, Nelson ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

^f JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^g UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Genome wide association; HIV; HIV associated dementia; HIV associated neurocognitive disorder; NeuroAIDS

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; CD4 ANTIGEN;

ADULT; ARTICLE; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DEPRESSION; DISEASE SEVERITY; FEMALE; GENE FREQUENCY; GENE LOCUS; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GENOME ANALYSIS; GENOTYPE; HAPLOTYPE; HEPATITIS C; HIV ASSOCIATED DEMENTIA; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MIXED INFECTION; NEUROPATHOLOGY; PHENOTYPE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; SUBSTANCE ABUSE;

ADULT; AIDS DEMENTIA COMPLEX; COGNITION DISORDERS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; GENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDY; GENOTYPE; HAPLOTYPES; HUMANS; MIDDLE AGED; MODELS, GENETIC; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PHENOTYPE; POLYMORPHISM, SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE; PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS; QUALITY CONTROL; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS;

EID: 84864943836     PISSN: 15524841     EISSN: 1552485X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32071     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. AAN. 1991. Nomenclature and research case definitions for neurologic manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1) infection. Report of a Working Group of the American Academy of Neurology AIDS Task Force. Neurology 41(6): 778- 785.
2. Achim CL, Wiley CA. 1996. Inflammation in AIDS and the role of the macrophage in brain pathology. Curr Opin Neurol 9(3): 221- 225.
3. An P, Winkler CA. 2010. Host genes associated with HIV/AIDS: Advances in gene discovery. Trends Genet 26(3): 119- 131.
4. Ances BM, Ellis RJ. 2007. Dementia and neurocognitive disorders due to HIV-1 infection. Semin Neurol 27(1): 86- 92.
5. Andres MA, Feger U, Nath A, Munsaka S, Jiang CS, Chang L. 2011. APOE epsilon 4 allele and CSF APOE on cognition in HIV-infected subjects. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 6(3): 389- 398.
6. Anthony IC, Bell JE. 2008. The Neuropathology of HIV/AIDS. Int Rev Psychiatry 20(1): 15- 24.
7. Antinori A, Arendt G, Becker JT, Brew BJ, Byrd DA, Cherner M, Clifford DB, Cinque P, Epstein LG, Goodkin K, Gisslen M, Grant I, Heaton RK, Joseph J, Marder K, Marra CM, McArthur JC, Nunn M, Price RW, Pulliam L, Robertson KR, Sacktor N, Valcour V, Wojna VE. 2007. Updated research nosology for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neurology 69(18): 1789- 1799.
8. Aouizerat BE, Pearce CL, Miaskowski C. 2011. The search for host genetic factors of HIV/AIDS pathogenesis in the post-genome era: Progress to date and new avenues for discovery. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 8(1): 38- 44.
9. Aulchenko YS, Struchalin MV, van Duijn CM. 2010. ProbABEL package for genome-wide association analysis of imputed data. BMC Bioinformatics 11: 134.
10. Becker JT, Lopez OL, Dew MA, Aizenstein HJ. 2004. Prevalence of cognitive disorders differs as a function of age in HIV virus infection. AIDS 18( Suppl 1): S11- S18.
11. Belbin O, Carrasquillo MM, Crump M, Culley OJ, Hunter TA, Ma L, Bisceglio G, Zou F, Allen M, Dickson DW, Graff-Radford NR, Petersen RC, Morgan K, Younkin SG. 2011. Investigation of 15 of the top candidate genes for late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Hum Genet 129(3): 273- 282.
12. Benos DJ, Hahn BH, Bubien JK, Ghosh SK, Mashburn NA, Chaikin MA, Shaw GM, Benveniste EN. 1994. Envelope glycoprotein gp120 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 alters ion transport in astrocytes: Implications for AIDS dementia complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91(2): 494- 498.
13. Bol SM, Booiman T, van Manen D, Bunnik EM, van Sighem AI, Sieberer M, Boeser-Nunnink B, de Wolf F, Schuitemaker H, Portegies P, Kootstra NA, van't Wout AB. 2012. Single Nucleotide Polymorphism in Gene Encoding Transcription Factor Prep1 Is Associated with HIV-1-Associated Dementia. PLoS ONE 7(2): e30990.
14. Borjabad A, Brooks AI, Volsky DJ. 2010. Gene expression profiles of HIV-1-infected glia and brain: Toward better understanding of the role of astrocytes in HIV-1-associated neurocognitive disorders. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 5(1): 44- 62.
15. Boven LA, van der Bruggen T, van Asbeck BS, Marx JJ, Nottet HS. 1999. Potential role of CCR5 polymorphism in the development of AIDS dementia complex. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 26(3-4): 243- 247.
16. Boven LA, Middel J, Verhoef J, De Groot CJ, Nottet HS. 2000. Monocyte infiltration is highly associated with loss of the tight junction protein zonula occludens in HIV-1-associated dementia. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 26(4): 356- 360.
17. Braskie MN, Jahanshad N, Stein JL, Barysheva M, McMahon KL, de Zubicaray GI, Martin NG, Wright MJ, Ringman JM, Toga AW, Thompson PM. 2011. Common Alzheimer's disease risk variant within the CLU gene affects white matter microstructure in young adults. J Neurosci 31(18): 6764- 6770.
18. Browning SR, Browning BL. 2007. Rapid and accurate haplotype phasing and missing-data inference for whole-genome association studies by use of localized haplotype clustering. Am J Hum Genet 81(5): 1084- 1097.
19. Burt TD, Agan BK, Marconi VC, He W, Kulkarni H, Mold JE, Cavrois M, Huang Y, Mahley RW, Dolan MJ, McCune JM, Ahuja SK. 2008. Apolipoprotein (apo) E4 enhances HIV-1 cell entry in vitro, and the APOE epsilon4/epsilon4 genotype accelerates HIV disease progression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105(25): 8718- 8723.
20. Chang L, Andres M, Sadino J, Jiang CS, Nakama H, Miller E, Ernst T. 2011. Impact of apolipoprotein E epsilon4 and HIV on cognition and brain atrophy: Antagonistic pleiotropy and premature brain aging. Neuroimage 58(4): 1017- 1027.
21. Cherner M, Ellis RJ, Lazzaretto D, Young C, Mindt MR, Atkinson JH, Grant I, Heaton RK. 2004. Effects of HIV-1 infection and aging on neurobehavioral functioning: preliminary findings. AIDS 18( Suppl 1): S27- S34.
22. Cherner M, Letendre S, Heaton RK, Durelle J, Marquie-Beck J, Gragg B, Grant I. 2005. Hepatitis C augments cognitive deficits associated with HIV infection and methamphetamine. Neurology 64(8): 1343- 1347.
23. Comalli PE Jr, Wapner S, Werner H. 1962. Interfernce effects of Stroop color-word test in childhood, adulthood, and aging. J Genet Psychol 100: 47- 53.
24. Corder EH, Robertson K, Lannfelt L, Bogdanovic N, Eggertsen G, Wilkins J, Hall C. 1998. HIV-infected subjects with the E4 allele for APOE have excess dementia and peripheral neuropathy. Nat Med 4(10): 1182- 1184.
25. Cysique LA, Brew BJ. 2009. Neuropsychological functioning and antiretroviral treatment in HIV/AIDS: A review. Neuropsychol Rev 19(2): 169- 185.
26. Cysique LA, Maruff P, Brew BJ. 2006. Variable benefit in neuropsychological function in HIV-infected HAART-treated patients. Neurology 66(9): 1447- 1450.
27. Cysique LA, Letendre SL, Ake C, Jin H, Franklin DR, Gupta S, Shi C, Yu X, Wu Z, Abramson IS, Grant I, Heaton RK. 2010. Incidence and nature of cognitive decline over 1 year among HIV-infected former plasma donors in China. AIDS 24(7): 983- 990.
28. Devlin B, Roeder K. 1999. Genomic control for association studies. Biometrics 55(4): 997- 1004.
29. Diaz-Arrastia R, Gong Y, Kelly CJ, Gelman BB. 2004. Host genetic polymorphisms in human immunodeficiency virus-related neurologic disease. J Neurovirol 10( Suppl 1): 67- 73.
30. Dore GJ, McDonald A, Li Y, Kaldor JM, Brew BJ. 2003. Marked improvement in survival following AIDS dementia complex in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 17(10): 1539- 1545.
31. Dunlop O, Goplen AK, Liestol K, Myrvang B, Rootwelt H, Christophersen B, Kvittingen EA, Maehlen J. 1997. HIV dementia and apolipoprotein E. Acta Neurol Scand 95(5): 315- 318.
32. Everall IP, Heaton RK, Marcotte TD, Ellis RJ, McCutchan JA, Atkinson JH, Grant I, Mallory M, Masliah E. 1999. Cortical synaptic density is reduced in mild to moderate human immunodeficiency virus neurocognitive disorder. HNRC Group. HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center. Brain Pathol 9(2): 209- 217.
33. Everall I, Salaria S, Roberts E, Corbeil J, Sasik R, Fox H, Grant I, Masliah E. 2005a. Methamphetamine stimulates interferon inducible genes in HIV infected brain. J Neuroimmunol 170(1-2): 158- 171.
34. Everall IP, Hansen LA, Masliah E. 2005b. The shifting patterns of HIV encephalitis neuropathology. Neurotox Res 8(1-2): 51- 61.
35. Everall I, Vaida F, Khanlou N, Lazzaretto D, Achim C, Letendre S, Moore D, Ellis R, Cherner M, Gelman B, Morgello S, Singer E, Grant I, Masliah E. National Neuro ATC. 2009. Cliniconeuropathologic correlates of human immunodeficiency virus in the era of antiretroviral therapy. J Neurovirol 15(5-6): 360- 370.
36. Fama R, Rosenbloom MJ, Nichols BN, Pfefferbaum A, Sullivan EV. 2009. Working and episodic memory in HIV infection, alcoholism, and their comorbidity: Baseline and 1-year follow-up examinations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33(10): 1815- 1824.
37. Fan J, Wu Y, Fossella JA, Posner MI. 2001. Assessing the heritability of attentional networks. BMC Neurosci 2: 14.
38. Fellay J, Shianna KV, Ge D, Colombo S, Ledergerber B, Weale M, Zhang K, Gumbs C, Castagna A, Cossarizza A, Cozzi-Lepri A, De Luca A, Easterbrook P, Francioli P, Mallal S, Martinez-Picado J, Miro JM, Obel N, Smith JP, Wyniger J, Descombes P, Antonarakis SE, Letvin NL, McMichael AJ, Haynes BF, Telenti A, Goldstein DB. 2007. A whole-genome association study of major determinants for host control of HIV-1. Science 317(5840): 944- 947.
39. Fox L, Alford M, Achim C, Mallory M, Masliah E. 1997. Neurodegeneration of somatostatin-immunoreactive neurons in HIV encephalitis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 56(4): 360- 368.
40. Frazer KA, Ballinger DG, Cox DR, Hinds DA, Stuve LL, Gibbs RA, Belmont JW, Boudreau A, Hardenbol P, Leal SM, Pasternak S, Wheeler DA, Willis TD, Yu F, Yang H, Zeng C, Gao Y, Hu H, Hu W, Li C, Lin W, Liu S, Pan H, Tang X, Wang J, Wang W, Yu J, Zhang B, Zhang Q, Zhao H, Zhao H, Zhou J, Gabriel SB, Barry R, Blumenstiel B, Camargo A, Defelice M, Faggart M, Goyette M, Gupta S, Moore J, Nguyen H, Onofrio RC, Parkin M, Roy J, Stahl E, Winchester E, Ziaugra L, Altshuler D, Shen Y, Yao Z, Huang W, Chu X, He Y, Jin L, Liu Y, Shen Y, Sun W, Wang H, Wang Y, Wang Y, Xiong X, Xu L, Waye MM, Tsui SK, Xue H, Wong JT, Galver LM, Fan JB, Gunderson K, Murray SS, Oliphant AR, Chee MS, Montpetit A, Chagnon F, Ferretti V, Leboeuf M, Olivier JF, Phillips MS, Roumy S, Sallee C, Verner A, Hudson TJ, Kwok PY, Cai D, Koboldt DC, Miller RD, Pawlikowska L, Taillon-Miller P, Xiao M, Tsui LC, Mak W, Song YQ, Tam PK, Nakamura Y, Kawaguchi T, Kitamoto T, Morizono T, Nagashima A, Ohnishi Y, Sekine A, Tanaka T, Tsunoda T, Deloukas P, Bird CP, Delgado M, Dermitzakis ET, Gwilliam R, Hunt S, Morrison J, Powell D, Stranger BE, Whittaker P, Bentley DR, Daly MJ, de Bakker PI, Barrett J, Chretien YR, Maller J, McCarroll S, Patterson N, Pe'er I, Price A, Purcell S, Richter DJ, Sabeti P, Saxena R, Schaffner SF, Sham PC, Varilly P, Altshuler D, Stein LD, Krishnan L, Smith AV, Tello-Ruiz MK, Thorisson GA, Chakravarti A, Chen PE, Cutler DJ, Kashuk CS, Lin S, Abecasis GR, Guan W, Li Y, Munro HM, Qin ZS, Thomas DJ, McVean G, Auton A, Bottolo L, Cardin N, Eyheramendy S, Freeman C, Marchini J, Myers S, Spencer C, Stephens M, Donnelly P, Cardon LR, Clarke G, Evans DM, Morris AP, Weir BS, Tsunoda T, Mullikin JC, Sherry ST, Feolo M, Skol A, Zhang H, Zeng C, Zhao H, Matsuda I, Fukushima Y, Macer DR, Suda E, Rotimi CN, Adebamowo CA, Ajayi I, Aniagwu T, Marshall PA, Nkwodimmah C, Royal CD, Leppert MF, Dixon M, Peiffer A, Qiu R, Kent A, Kato K, Niikawa N, Adewole IF, Knoppers BM, Foster MW, Clayton EW, Watkin J, Gibbs RA, Belmont JW, Muzny D, Nazareth L, Sodergren E, Weinstock GM, Wheeler DA, Yakub I, Gabriel SB, Onofrio RC, Richter DJ, Ziaugra L, Birren BW, Daly MJ, Altshuler D, Wilson RK, Fulton LL, Rogers J, Burton J, Carter NP, Clee CM, Griffiths M, Jones MC, McLay K, Plumb RW, Ross MT, Sims SK, Willey DL, Chen Z, Han H, Kang L, Godbout M, Wallenburg JC, L'Archeveque P, Bellemare G, Saeki K, Wang H, An D, Fu H, Li Q, Wang Z, Wang R, Holden AL, Brooks LD, McEwen JE, Guyer MS, Wang VO, Peterson JL, Shi M, Spiegel J, Sung LM, Zacharia LF, Collins FS, Kennedy K, Jamieson R, Stewart J. 2007. A second generation human haplotype map of over 3.1 million SNPs. Nature 449(7164): 851- 861.
41. Gaskill PJ, Calderon TM, Luers AJ, Eugenin EA, Javitch JA, Berman JW. 2009. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection of human macrophages is increased by dopamine: A bridge between HIV-associated neurologic disorders and drug abuse. Am J Pathol 175(3): 1148- 1159.
42. Gelman BB. 2007. The neuropathology of HIV. Handb Clin Neurol 85: 301- 317.
43. Gelman BB, Soukup VM, Schuenke KW, Keherly MJ, Holzer C 3rd, Richey FJ, Lahart CJ. 2004. Acquired neuronal channelopathies in HIV-associated dementia. J Neuroimmunol 157(1-2): 111- 119.
44. Gonzalez R, Cherner M. 2008. Co-factors in HIV neurobehavioural disturbances: Substance abuse, hepatitis C and aging. Int Rev Psychiatry 20(1): 49- 60.
45. Gonzalez E, Rovin BH, Sen L, Cooke G, Dhanda R, Mummidi S, Kulkarni H, Bamshad MJ, Telles V, Anderson SA, Walter EA, Stephan KT, Deucher M, Mangano A, Bologna R, Ahuja SS, Dolan MJ, Ahuja SK. 2002. HIV-1 infection and AIDS dementia are influenced by a mutant MCP-1 allele linked to increased monocyte infiltration of tissues and MCP-1 levels. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99(21): 13795- 13800.
46. Heaton RK, Clifford DB, Franklin DR Jr, Woods SP, Ake C, Vaida F, Ellis RJ, Letendre SL, Marcotte TD, Atkinson JH, Rivera-Mindt M, Vigil OR, Taylor MJ, Collier AC, Marra CM, Gelman BB, McArthur JC, Morgello S, Simpson DM, McCutchan JA, Abramson I, Gamst A, Fennema-Notestine C, Jernigan TL, Wong J, Grant I. 2010. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders persist in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: CHARTER Study. Neurology 75(23): 2087- 2096.
47. Heaton RK, Franklin DR, Ellis RJ, McCutchan JA, Letendre SL, Leblanc S, Corkran SH, Duarte NA, Clifford DB, Woods SP, Collier AC, Marra CM, Morgello S, Mindt MR, Taylor MJ, Marcotte TD, Atkinson JH, Wolfson T, Gelman BB, McArthur JC, Simpson DM, Abramson I, Gamst A, Fennema-Notestine C, Jernigan TL, Wong J, Grant I. 2011. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders before and during the era of combination antiretroviral therapy: Differences in rates, nature, and predictors. J Neurovirol 17(1): 3- 16.
48. Hinkin CH, Castellon SA, Levine AJ, Barclay TR, Singer EJ. 2008. Neurocognition in individuals co-infected with HIV and hepatitis C. J Addict Dis 27(2): 11- 17.
49. Ho AJ, Stein JL, Hua X, Lee S, Hibar DP, Leow AD, Dinov ID, Toga AW, Saykin AJ, Shen L, Foroud T, Pankratz N, Huentelman MJ, Craig DW, Gerber JD, Allen AN, Corneveaux JJ, Stephan DA, DeCarli CS, DeChairo BM, Potkin SG, Jack CR Jr, Weiner MW, Raji CA, Lopez OL, Becker JT, Carmichael OT, Thompson PM. 2010. A commonly carried allele of the obesity-related FTO gene is associated with reduced brain volume in the healthy elderly. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107(18): 8404- 8409.
50. Jaen A, Esteve A, Miro JM, Tural C, Montoliu A, Ferrer E, Riera M, Segura F, Force L, Sued O, Vilaro J, Garcia I, Masabeu A, Altes J, Coltet B, Podzamczer D, Murillas J, Navarro G, Gatell JM, Casabona J. 2008. Determinants of HIV progression and assessment of the optimal time to initiate highly active antiretroviral therapy: PISCIS Cohort (Spain). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 47(2): 212- 220.
51. Jernigan TL, Gamst AC, Archibald SL, Fennema-Notestine C, Mindt MR, Marcotte TD, Heaton RK, Ellis RJ, Grant I. 2005. Effects of methamphetamine dependence and HIV infection on cerebral morphology. Am J Psychiatry 162(8): 1461- 1472.
52. Khanlou N, Moore DJ, Chana G, Cherner M, Lazzaretto D, Dawes S, Grant I, Masliah E, Everall IP. 2009. Increased frequency of alpha-synuclein in the substantia nigra in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Neurovirol 15(2): 131- 138.
53. Klove H, Matthews CG. 1966. Psychometric and adaptive abilities in epilepsy with differential etiology. Epilepsia 7(4): 330- 338.
54. Kraft-Terry SD, Buch SJ, Fox HS, Gendelman HE. 2009. A coat of many colors: Neuroimmune crosstalk in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Neuron 64(1): 133- 145.
55. Laumet G, Chouraki V, Grenier-Boley B, Legry V, Heath S, Zelenika D, Fievet N, Hannequin D, Delepine M, Pasquier F, Hanon O, Brice A, Epelbaum J, Berr C, Dartigues JF, Tzourio C, Campion D, Lathrop M, Bertram L, Amouyel P, Lambert JC. 2010. Systematic analysis of candidate genes for Alzheimer's disease in a French, genome-wide association study. J Alzheimers Dis 20(4): 1181- 1188.
56. Letendre S, Marquie-Beck J, Capparelli E, Best B, Clifford D, Collier AC, Gelman BB, McArthur JC, McCutchan JA, Morgello S, Simpson D, Grant I, Ellis RJ. 2008. Validation of the CNS penetration-effectiveness rank for quantifying antiretroviral penetration into the central nervous system. Arch Neurol 65(1): 65- 70.
57. Levine AJ, Hardy DJ, Miller E, Castellon SA, Longshore D, Hinkin CH. 2006. The effect of recent stimulant use on sustained attention in HIV-infected adults. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 28(1): 29- 42.
58. Levine AJ, Singer EJ, Shapshak P. 2009a. The role of host genetics in the susceptibility for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. AIDS Behav 13(1): 118- 132.
59. Levine AJ, Singer EJ, Sinsheimer JS, Hinkin CH, Papp J, Dandekar S, Giovanelli A, Shapshak P. 2009b. CCL3 genotype and current depression increase risk of HIV-associated dementia. Neurobehav HIV Med 1: 1- 7.
60. Li Y, Willer CJ, Ding J, Scheet P, Abecasis GR. 2010. MaCH: Using sequence and genotype data to estimate haplotypes and unobserved genotypes. Genet Epidemiol 34(8): 816- 834.
61. Lin K, Taylor MJ, Heaton R, Franklin D, Jernigan T, Fennema-Notestine C, McCutchan A, Atkinson JH, Ellis RJ, McArthur J, Morgello S, Simpson D, Collier AC, Marra C, Gelman B, Clifford D, Grant I. 2011. Effects of traumatic brain injury on cognitive functioning and cerebral metabolites in HIV-infected individuals. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 33(3): 326- 334.
62. Martin-Thormeyer EM, Paul RH. 2009. Drug abuse and hepatitis C infection as comorbid features of HIV associated neurocognitive disorder: Neurocognitive and neuroimaging features. Neuropsychol Rev 19(2): 215- 231.
63. Masliah E, DeTeresa RM, Mallory ME, Hansen LA. 2000. Changes in pathological findings at autopsy in AIDS cases for the last 15 years. AIDS 14(1): 69- 74.
64. McArthur JC. 2004. HIV dementia: An evolving disease. J Neuroimmunol 157(1-2): 3- 10.
65. Miller E. 1990. California Computerized Assessment Package. Los Angeles: Norland Software.
66. Miller EN, Selnes OA, McArthur JC, Satz P, Becker JT, Cohen BA, Sheridan K, Machado AM, Van Gorp WG, Visscher B. 1990. Neuropsychological performance in HIV-1-infected homosexual men: The Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Neurology 40(2): 197- 203.
67. Moore DJ, Masliah E, Rippeth JD, Gonzalez R, Carey CL, Cherner M, Ellis RJ, Achim CL, Marcotte TD, Heaton RK, Grant I. 2006. Cortical and subcortical neurodegeneration is associated with HIV neurocognitive impairment. AIDS 20(6): 879- 887.
68. Nath A, Hauser KF, Wojna V, Booze RM, Maragos W, Prendergast M, Cass W, Turchan JT. 2002. Molecular basis for interactions of HIV and drugs of abuse. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 31( Suppl 2): S62- S69.
69. Navia BA, Jordan BD, Price RW. 1986. The AIDS dementia complex: I. Clinical features. Ann Neurol 19(6): 517- 524.
70. Noorbakhsh F, Ramachandran R, Barsby N, Ellestad KK, LeBlanc A, Dickie P, Baker G, Hollenberg MD, Cohen EA, Power C. 2010. MicroRNA profiling reveals new aspects of HIV neurodegeneration: Caspase-6 regulates astrocyte survival. FASEB J 24(6): 1799- 1812.
71. Osterrieth P. 1944. Le test de copie d'une figure complexe. Archives Psychologie 30: 206.
72. Parsons TD, Tucker KA, Hall CD, Robertson WT, Eron JJ, Fried MW, Robertson KR. 2006. Neurocognitive functioning and HAART in HIV and hepatitis C virus co-infection. AIDS 20(12): 1591- 1595.
73. Pemberton LA, Brew BJ. 2001. Cerebrospinal fluid S-100beta and its relationship with AIDS dementia complex. J Clin Virol 22(3): 249- 253.
74. Pemberton LA, Stone E, Price P, van Bockxmeer F, Brew BJ. 2008. The relationship between ApoE, TNFA, IL1a, IL1b and IL12b genes and HIV-1-associated dementia. HIV Med 9(8): 677- 680.
75. Pomara N, Belzer KD, Silva R, Cooper TB, Sidtis JJ. 2008. The apolipoprotein E epsilon4 allele and memory performance in HIV-1 seropositive subjects: Differences at baseline but not after acute oral lorazepam challenge. Psychopharmacology 201(1): 125- 135.
76. Posthuma D, Neale MC, Boomsma DI, de Geus EJ. 2001. Are smarter brains running faster? Heritability of alpha peak frequency, IQ, and their interrelation. Behav Genet 31(6): 567- 579.
77. Price AL, Patterson NJ, Plenge RM, Weinblatt ME, Shadick NA, Reich D. 2006. Principal components analysis corrects for stratification in genome-wide association studies. Nat Genet 38(8): 904- 909.
78. Purcell S, Neale B, Todd-Brown K, Thomas L, Ferreira MA, Bender D, Maller J, Sklar P, de Bakker PI, Daly MJ, Sham PC. 2007. PLINK: A tool set for whole-genome association and population-based linkage analyses. Am J Hum Genet 81(3): 559- 575.
79. Quasney MW, Zhang Q, Sargent S, Mynatt M, Glass J, McArthur J. 2001. Increased frequency of the tumor necrosis factor-alpha-308 A allele in adults with human immunodeficiency virus dementia. Ann Neurol 50(2): 157- 162.
80. Qureshi AI, Hanson DL, Jones JL, Janssen RS. 1998. Estimation of the temporal probability of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) dementia after risk stratification for HIV-infected persons. Neurology 50(2): 392- 397.
81. Radloff LS. 1977. The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas 1(1): 385- 401.
82. Rey A. 1941. L'examen psychologique dans les cas d'encephalopathie traumatique. Arch Psychologie 28: 286.
83. Rey A. 1964. L'examen clinique en psychologie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
84. Reitan R. 1958. Validity of the trail making test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Percept Mot Skills 8: 271.
85. Rippeth JD, Heaton RK, Carey CL, Marcotte TD, Moore DJ, Gonzalez R, Wolfson T, Grant I. 2004. Methamphetamine dependence increases risk of neuropsychological impairment in HIV infected persons. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 10(1): 1- 114.
86. Roberts ES, Masliah E, Fox HS. 2004. CD163 identifies a unique population of ramified microglia in HIV encephalitis (HIVE). J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 63(12): 1255- 1264.
87. Robertson KR, Smurzynski M, Parsons TD, Wu K, Bosch RJ, Wu J, McArthur JC, Collier AC, Evans SR, Ellis RJ. 2007. The prevalence and incidence of neurocognitive impairment in the HAART era. AIDS 21(14): 1915- 1921.
88. Rothlind JC, Greenfield TM, Bruce AV, Meyerhoff DJ, Flenniken DL, Lindgren JA, Weiner MW. 2005. Heavy alcohol consumption in individuals with HIV infection: Effects on neuropsychological performance. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 11(1): 70- 83.
89. Sassoon SA, Fama R, Rosenbloom MJ, O'Reilly A, Pfefferbaum A, Sullivan EV. 2007. Component cognitive and motor processes of the digit symbol test: Differential deficits in alcoholism, HIV infection, and their comorbidity. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31(8): 1315- 1324.
90. Selnes OA, Jacobson L, Machado AM, Becker JT, Wesch J, Miller EN, Visscher B, McArthur JC. 1991. Normative data for a brief neuropsychological screening battery. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Percept Mot Skills 73(2): 539- 550.
91. Seshadri S, Fitzpatrick AL, Ikram MA, DeStefano AL, Gudnason V, Boada M, Bis JC, Smith AV, Carassquillo MM, Lambert JC, Harold D, Schrijvers EM, Ramirez-Lorca R, Debette S, Longstreth WT Jr, Janssens AC, Pankratz VS, Dartigues JF, Hollingworth P, Aspelund T, Hernandez I, Beiser A, Kuller LH, Koudstaal PJ, Dickson DW, Tzourio C, Abraham R, Antunez C, Du Y, Rotter JI, Aulchenko YS, Harris TB, Petersen RC, Berr C, Owen MJ, Lopez-Arrieta J, Varadarajan BN, Becker JT, Rivadeneira F, Nalls MA, Graff-Radford NR, Campion D, Auerbach S, Rice K, Hofman A, Jonsson PV, Schmidt H, Lathrop M, Mosley TH, Au R, Psaty BM, Uitterlinden AG, Farrer LA, Lumley T, Ruiz A, Williams J, Amouyel P, Younkin SG, Wolf PA, Launer LJ, Lopez OL, van Duijn CM, Breteler MM. 2010. Genome-wide analysis of genetic loci associated with Alzheimer disease. JAMA 303(18): 1832- 1840.
92. Singh KK, Barroga CF, Hughes MD, Chen J, Raskino C, McKinney RE, Spector SA. 2003. Genetic influence of CCR5, CCR2, and SDF1 variants on human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1)-related disease progression and neurological impairment, in children with symptomatic HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis 188(10): 1461- 1472.
93. Singh KK, Ellis RJ, Marquie-Beck J, Letendre S, Heaton RK, Grant I, Spector SA. 2004. CCR2 polymorphisms affect neuropsychological impairment in HIV-1-infected adults. J Neuroimmunol 157(1-2): 185- 192.
94. Smith A. 1982. Symbol digit modalities test. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Service.
95. Spector SA, Singh KK, Gupta S, Cystique LA, Jin H, Letendre S, Schrier R, Wu Z, Hong KX, Yu X, Shi C, Heaton RK. 2010. APOE epsilon4 and MBL-2 O/O genotypes are associated with neurocognitive impairment in HIV-infected plasma donors. AIDS 24(10): 1471- 1479.
96. Stins JF, van Baal GC, Polderman TJ, Verhulst FC, Boomsma DI. 2004. Heritability of Stroop and Flanker performance in 12-year old children. BMC Neurosci 5: 49.
97. Swan GE, Carmelli D. 2002. Evidence for genetic mediation of executive control: A study of aging male twins. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 57(2): P133- P143.
98. Swan GE, Reed T, Jack LM, Miller BL, Markee T, Wolf PA, DeCarli C, Carmelli D. 1999. Differential genetic influence for components of memory in aging adult twins. Arch Neurol 56: 1127- 1132.
99. Taylor J. 2007. Heritability of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and Stroop Color-Word Test performance in normal individuals: Implications for the search for endophenotypes. Twin Res Hum Genet 10(6): 829- 834.
100. Tozzi V, Balestra P, Lorenzini P, Bellagamba R, Galgani S, Corpolongo A, Vlassi C, Larussa D, Zaccarelli M, Noto P, Visco-Comandini U, Giulianelli M, Ippolito G, Antinori A, Narciso P. 2005. Prevalence and risk factors for human immunodeficiency virus-associated neurocognitive impairment, 1996 to 2002: results from an urban observational cohort. J Neurovirol 11(3): 265- 273.
101. Valcour V, Shikuma C, Shiramizu B, Watters M, Poff P, Selnes OA, Grove J, Liu Y, Abdul-Majid KB, Gartner S, Sacktor N. 2004a. Age, apolipoprotein E4, and the risk of HIV dementia: The Hawaii Aging with HIV Cohort. J Neuroimmunol 157(1-2): 197- 202.
102. Valcour V, Shikuma C, Watters M, Sacktor N. 2004b. Cognitive impairment in older HIV-1-seropositive individuals: Prevalence and potential mechanisms. AIDS 18( Suppl 1): S79- S86.
103. Valcour V, Shikuma C, Shiramizu B, Williams A, Watters M, Poff P, Grove J, Selnes O, Sacktor N. 2005. Diabetes, insulin resistance, and dementia among HIV-1-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 38(1): 31- 36.
104. van Rij RP, Portegies P, Hallaby T, Lange JM, Visser J, de Roda Husman AM, van't Wout AB, Schuitemaker H. 1999. Reduced prevalence of the CCR5 delta32 heterozygous genotype in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals with AIDS dementia complex. J Infect Dis 180(3): 854- 857.
105. Wojna V, Skolasky RL, Hechavarria R, Mayo R, Selnes O, McArthur JC, Melendez LM, Maldonado E, Zorrilla CD, Garcia H, Kraiselburd E, Nath A. 2006. Prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus-associated cognitive impairment in a group of Hispanic women at risk for neurological impairment. J Neurovirol 12(5): 356- 364.
106. Woods SP, Rippeth JD, Frol AB, Levy JK, Ryan E, Soukup VM, Hinkin CH, Lazzaretto D, Cherner M, Marcotte TD, Gelman BB, Morgello S, Singer EJ, Grant I, Heaton RK. 2004. Interrater reliability of clinical ratings and neurocognitive diagnoses in HIV. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 26(6): 759- 778.
107. Woods SP, Moore DJ, Weber E, Grant I. 2009. Cognitive neuropsychology of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neuropsychol Rev 19(2): 152- 168.
108. Zheng J, Gendelman HE. 1997. The HIV-1 associated dementia complex: A metabolic encephalopathy fueled by viral replication in mononuclear phagocytes. Curr Opin Neurol 10(4): 319- 325.
109. Zhou L, Rua R, Ng T, Vongrad V, Ho YS, Geczy C, Hsu K, Brew BJ, Saksena NK. 2009. Evidence for predilection of macrophage infiltration patterns in the deeper midline and mesial temporal structures of the brain uniquely in patients with HIV-associated dementia. BMC Infect Dis 9: 192.