Neurobiology of Addiction. Insight from Neurochemical Imaging.

Psychiatric Clinics of North America

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 521-541

  Urban, Nina B L ^a,b   Martinez, Diana ^a,b  

^a Columbia University ^*  (United States)

^b NEW YORK STATE PSYCHIATRIC INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Dopamine; Neuroimaging; PET; Psychostimulants; Reward system; SPECT

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID A RECEPTOR; 6 FLUORODOPA F 18; ALCOHOL; AMPHETAMINE; BRAIN RECEPTOR; CANNABINOID 1 RECEPTOR; CARBON 11; CARFENTANIL C 11; DIAMORPHINE; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE TRANSPORTER; DRONABINOL; FLUORINE 18; IODINE 123; IODOBENZAMIDE I 123; METHAMPHETAMINE; METHYLPHENIDATE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; NEUROTRANSMITTER; OPIATE RECEPTOR; RACLOPRIDE C 11; SEROTONIN RECEPTOR; SIGMA OPIATE RECEPTOR; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ALCOHOLISM; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; CANNABIS ADDICTION; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; COMPULSION; DOPAMINE RELEASE; DOPAMINERGIC TRANSMISSION; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG RECEPTOR BINDING; HEROIN DEPENDENCE; HUMAN; MESOLIMBIC DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM; METHAMPHETAMINE DEPENDENCE; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROCHEMISTRY; NEUROIMAGING; NONHUMAN; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REINFORCEMENT; REVIEW; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY;

ANIMALS; BASAL GANGLIA; BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STIMULANTS; CORPUS STRIATUM; DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINERGIC NEURONS; DRUG-SEEKING BEHAVIOR; FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING; HUMANS; NEUROBIOLOGY; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; RADIOLIGAND ASSAY; RECEPTORS, DOPAMINE; REWARD; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; TOMOGRAPHY, EMISSION-COMPUTED, SINGLE-PHOTON; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84861477266     PISSN: 0193953X     EISSN: 15583147     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.psc.2012.03.011     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Koob G.F. Hedonic homeostatic dysregulation as a driver of drug-seeking behavior. Drug Discov Today Dis Models 2008, 5(4):207-215.
2. Carlezon W.A., Wise R.A. Rewarding actions of phencyclidine and related drugs in nucleus accumbens shell and frontal cortex. J Neurosci 1996, 16(9):3112-3122.
3. Devane W.A., Axelrod J. Enzymatic synthesis of anandamide, an endogenous ligand for the cannabinoid receptor, by brain membranes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1994, 91(14):6698-6701.
4. Vogel Z., Barg J., Levy R., et al. Anandamide, a brain endogenous compound, interacts specifically with cannabinoid receptors and inhibits adenylate cyclase. J Neurochem 1993, 61(1):352-355.
5. Wise R.A., Rompre P.P. Brain dopamine and reward. Annu Rev Psychol 1989, 40:191-225.
6. Koob G.F., Le Moal M. Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis. Neuropsychopharmacology 2001, 24(2):97-129.
7. Robinson T.E., Berridge K.C. Addiction. Annu Rev Psychol 2003, 54:25-53.
8. Koob G.F. Neural mechanisms of drug reinforcement. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1992, 654:171-191.
9. Wise R.A. The role of reward pathways in the development of drug dependence. Pharmacol Ther 1987, 35(1-2):227-263.
10. Wise R.A. Roles for nigrostriatal-not just mesocorticolimbic-dopamine in reward and addiction. Trends Neurosci 2009, 32(10):517-524.
11. Schultz W. Multiple dopamine functions at different time courses. Annu Rev Neurosci 2007, 30:259-288.
12. Grace A.A. The tonic/phasic model of dopamine system regulation and its implications for understanding alcohol and psychostimulant craving. Addiction 2000, 95(Suppl 2):S119-S128.
13. Carson R.E. Parameters estimation in positron emission tomography, in positron emission tomography: principles and applications for the brain and the heart 1986, 347-390. Raven Press, New York. M.E. Phelps, J.C. Mazziotta, H.R. Schelbert (Eds.).
14. Slifstein M., Laruelle M. Models and methods for derivation of in vivo neuroreceptor parameters with PET and SPECT reversible radiotracers. Nucl Med Biol 2001, 28(5):595-608.
15. Innis R.B., Cunningham V.J., Delforge J., et al. Consensus nomenclature for in vivo imaging of reversibly binding radioligands. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2007, 27(9):1533-1539.
16. Breier A., Su T.P., Saunders R., et al. Schizophrenia is associated with elevated amphetamine-induced synaptic dopamine concentrations: evidence from a novel positron emission tomography method. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997, 94(6):2569-2574.
17. 11C-raclopride is altered by drugs that modify synaptic dopamine levels. Synapse 1993, 13(4):350-356.
18. 123I]IBZM binding to the D2 receptor in nonhuman primates. Synapse 1992, 10(3):177-184.
19. Laruelle M., Iyer R.N., al-Tikriti M., et al. Microdialysis and SPECT measurements of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in nonhuman primates. Synapse 1997, 25(1):1-14.
20. Laruelle M., Abi-Dargham A., van Dyck C.H., et al. SPECT imaging of striatal dopamine release after amphetamine challenge. J Nucl Med 1995, 36:1182-1190.
21. Volkow N.D., Wang G., Fowler R.S., et al. Therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate significantly increase extracellular dopamine in the human brain. J Neurosci 2001, 21(2):RC121.
22. Martinez D., Greene K., Broft A., et al. Lower level of endogenous dopamine in patients with cocaine dependence: findings from PET imaging of D(2)/D(3) receptors following acute dopamine depletion. Am J Psychiatry 2009, 166(10):1170-1177.
23. 18F]fallypride binding in healthy humans. Synapse 2008, 62(6):399-408.
24. 18F] fallypride. Biol Psychiatry 2008, 63(2):241-244.
25. Verhoeff N.P., Hussey D., Lee M., et al. Dopamine depletion results in increased neostriatal D(2), but not D(1), receptor binding in humans. Mol Psychiatry 2002, 7(3):233. 322-8.
26. Laruelle M., D'Souza C.D., Baldwin R.M., et al. Imaging D2 receptor occupancy by endogenous dopamine in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997, 17:162-174.
27. 123I]IBZM. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1994, 20:644.
28. Laruelle M. Imaging synaptic neurotransmission with in vivo binding competition techniques: a critical review. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2000, 20(3):423-451.
29. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wolf A.P., et al. Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on postsynaptic dopamine receptors. Am J Psychiatry 1990, 147(6):719-724.
30. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wang G.J., et al. Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse 1993, 14(2):169-177.
31. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., et al. Decreased striatal dopaminergic responsiveness in detoxified cocaine-dependent subjects. Nature 1997, 386:830-833.
32. Martinez D., Broft A., Foltin R.W., et al. Cocaine dependence and d2 receptor availability in the functional subdivisions of the striatum: relationship with cocaine-seeking behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004, 29(6):1190-1202.
33. Martinez D., Carpenter K.M., Liu F., et al. Imaging dopamine transmission in cocaine dependence: link between neurochemistry and response to treatment. Am J Psychiatry 2011, 168(6):634-641.
34. Nader M.A., Morgan D., Gage H.D., et al. PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors during chronic cocaine self-administration in monkeys. Nat Neurosci 2006, 9(8):1050-1056.
35. Martinez D., Slifstein M., Narendran R., et al. Dopamine D1 receptors in cocaine dependence measured with PET and the choice to self-administer cocaine. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 34(7):1774-1782.
36. Volkow N.D., Change L., Wang G.J., et al. Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 2001, 158(12):2015-2021.
37. Lee B., London E.D., Poldrack R.A., et al. Striatal dopamine d2/d3 receptor availability is reduced in methamphetamine dependence and is linked to impulsivity. J Neurosci 2009, 29(47):14734-14740.
38. Wang G.J., Smith L., Volkow N.D., et al. Decreased dopamine activity predicts relapse in methamphetamine abusers. Mol Psychiatry 2011, [Epub ahead of print]. 10.1038/mp.2011.86.
39. Dalley J.W., Fryer T.D., Brichard L., et al. Nucleus accumbens D2/3 receptors predict trait impulsivity and cocaine reinforcement. Science 2007, 315(5816):1267-1270.
40. Wang G.J., Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., et al. Dopamine D2 receptor availability in opiate-dependent subjects before and after naloxone-precipitated withdrawal. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997, 16(2):174-182.
41. Hietala J., West C., Swälahti E., et al. Striatal D2 dopamine receptor binding characteristics in vivo in patients with alcohol dependence. Psychopharmacology [Berl] 1994, 116(3):285-290.
42. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., et al. Decreases in dopamine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1996, 20(9):1594-1598.
43. Martinez D., Gil R., Slifstein M., et al. Alcohol dependence is associated with blunted dopamine transmission in the ventral striatum. Biol Psychiatry 2005, 58(10):779-786.
44. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Telang F., et al. Profound decreases in dopamine release in striatum in detoxified alcoholics: possible orbitofrontal involvement. J Neurosci 2007, 27(46):12700-12706.
45. Fehr C., Yakushev I., Hohmann N., et al. Association of low striatal dopamine d2 receptor availability with nicotine dependence similar to that seen with other drugs of abuse. Am J Psychiatry 2008, 165(4):507-514.
46. Wang G.J., Volkow N.D., Logan J., et al. Brain dopamine and obesity. Lancet 2001, 357(9253):354-357.
47. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., et al. Overlapping neuronal circuits in addiction and obesity: evidence of systems pathology. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2008, 363(1507):3191-3200.
48. Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Wang G.J. Role of dopamine in drug reinforcement and addiction in humans: results from imaging studies. Behav Pharmacol 2002, 13(5-6):355-366.
49. Melis M., Spiga S., Diana M. The dopamine hypothesis of drug addiction: hypodopaminergic state. Int Rev Neurobiol 2005, 63:101-154.
50. Wagner F.A., Anthony J.C. From first drug use to drug dependence; developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002, 26(4):479-488.
51. Volkow N., Li T.K. The neuroscience of addiction. Nat Neurosci 2005, 8(11):1429-1430.
52. Morgan D., Grant K.A., Gage H.D., et al. Social dominance in monkeys: dopamine D2 receptors and cocaine self-administration. Nat Neurosci 2002, 5(2):169-174.
53. Martinez D., Orlowska D., Narendran R., et al. Dopamine type 2/3 receptor availability in the striatum and social status in human volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 2010, 67(3):275-278.
54. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Begleiter H., et al. High levels of dopamine D2 receptors in unaffected members of alcoholic families: possible protective factors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006, 63(9):999-1008.
55. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., et al. Prediction of reinforcing responses to psychostimulants in humans by brain dopamine D2 receptor levels. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156(9):1440-1443.
56. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., et al. Brain DA D2 receptors predict reinforcing effects of stimulants in humans: replication study. Synapse 2002, 46(2):79-82.
57. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., et al. Relationship between psychostimulant-induced "high" and dopamine transporter occupancy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996, 93(19):10388-10392.
58. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Fowler J.S., et al. Reinforcing effects of psychostimulants in humans are associated with increases in brain dopamine and occupancy of D(2) receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999, 291(1):409-415.
59. Drevets W.C., Gautier C., Price J.C., et al. Amphetamine-induced dopamine release in human ventral striatum correlates with euphoria. Biol Psychiatry 2001, 49(2):81-96.
60. Brody A.L., Mandekern M.A., Olmstead R.E., et al. Ventral striatal dopamine release in response to smoking a regular vs a denicotinized cigarette. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 34(2):282-289.
61. Boileau I., Assaad J.M., Pihl R.O., et al. Alcohol promotes dopamine release in the human nucleus accumbens. Synapse 2003, 49(4):226-231.
62. 11C]raclopride. Biol Psychiatry 2010, 68(8):689-696.
63. Bossong M.G., van Berckel B.N., Boellaard R., et al. Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol induces dopamine release in the human striatum. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 34(3):759-766.
64. Di Chiara G., Imperato A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988, 85(14):5274-5278.
65. 123I]IBZM SPECT. J Nucl Med 1999, 40(5 Suppl):110P.
66. Wu J.C., Bell K., Najafi A., et al. Decreasing striatal 6-FDOPA uptake with increasing duration of cocaine withdrawal. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997, 17(6):402-409.
67. Martinez D., Narendran R., Fottin R.W., et al. Amphetamine-induced dopamine release: markedly blunted in cocaine dependence and predictive of the choice to self-administer cocaine. Am J Psychiatry 2007, 164(4):622-629.
68. Higgins S.T., Budney A.J., Bickel W.K., et al. Incentives improve outcome in outpatient behavioral treatment of cocaine dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994, 51(7):568-576.
69. Higgins S.T., Sigmon S.C., Wong C.J., et al. Community reinforcement therapy for cocaine-dependent outpatients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003, 60(10):1043-1052.
70. Martinez D., Saccone P.A., Liu F., et al. Deficits in dopamine D(2) receptors and presynaptic dopamine in heroin dependence: commonalities and differences with other types of addiction. Biol Psychiatry 2012, 71(3):192-198.
71. Wise R.A. Addictive drugs and brain stimulation reward. Annu Rev Neurosci 1996, 19:319-340.
72. Sesack S.R., Grace A.A. Cortico-basal ganglia reward network: microcircuitry. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010, 35(1):27-47.
73. Goto Y., Grace A.A. Limbic and cortical information processing in the nucleus accumbens. Trends Neurosci 2008, 31(11):552-558.
74. Cardinal R.N., Pennicott D.R., Sugathapala C.L., et al. Impulsive choice induced in rats by lesions of the nucleus accumbens core. Science 2001, 292(5526):2499-2501.
75. Grabowski J., Shearer J., Merrill J., et al. Agonist-like, replacement pharmacotherapy for stimulant abuse and dependence. Addict Behav 2004, 29(7):1439-1464.
76. Schmitz J.M., Mooney M.E., Moeller F.G., et al. Levodopa pharmacotherapy for cocaine dependence: choosing the optimal behavioral therapy platform. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008, 94(1-3):142-150.
77. Shippenberg T.S., Zapata A., Chefer V.I. Dynorphin and the pathophysiology of drug addiction. Pharmacol Ther 2007, 116(2):306-321.
78. Lester D.B., Rogers T.D., Blaha C.D. Acetylcholine-dopamine interactions in the pathophysiology and treatment of CNS disorders. CNS Neurosci Ther 2010, 16(3):137-162.
79. Koob G.F., Volkow N.D. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010, 35(1):217-238.
80. Nestler E.J. Is there a common molecular pathway for addiction?. Nat Neurosci 2005, 8(11):1445-1449.
81. Sekine Y., Iyo M., Ouchi Y., et al. Methamphetamine-related psychiatric symptoms and reduced brain dopamine transporters studied with PET. Am J Psychiatry 2001, 158(8):1206-1214.
82. Chou Y.H., Huang W.S., Su T.P., et al. Dopamine transporters and cognitive function in methamphetamine abuser after a short abstinence: a SPECT study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2007, 17(1):46-52.
83. Volkow N.D., Chang L., Wang G.J., et al. Association of dopamine transporter reduction with psychomotor impairment in methamphetamine abusers. Am J Psychiatry 2001, 158(3):377-382.
84. Iyo M., Sekine Y., Mori N. Neuromechanism of developing methamphetamine psychosis: a neuroimaging study. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004, 1025:288-295.
85. Johanson C.E., Frey K.A., Lundahl L.H., et al. Cognitive function and nigrostriatal markers in abstinent methamphetamine abusers. Psychopharmacology [Berl] 2006, 185(3):327-338.
86. 11C]WIN-35,428. J Neurosci 1998, 18(20):8417-8422.
87. McCann U.D., Kuwabara H., Kumar A., et al. Persistent cognitive and dopamine transporter deficits in abstinent methamphetamine users. Synapse 2008, 62(2):91-100.
88. Melega W.P., Lacan G., Desalles A.A., et al. Long-term methamphetamine-induced decreases of [(11)C]WIN 35,428 binding in striatum are reduced by GDNF: PET studies in the vervet monkey. Synapse 2000, 35(4):243-249.
89. Hashimoto K., Tsukada H., Nishiyama S., et al. Protective effects of N-acetyl-l-cysteine on the reduction of dopamine transporters in the striatum of monkeys treated with methamphetamine. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004, 29(11):2018-2023.
90. Hashimoto K., Tsukada H., Nishiyama S., et al. Protective effects of minocycline on the reduction of dopamine transporters in the striatum after administration of methamphetamine: a positron emission tomography study in conscious monkeys. Biol Psychiatry 2007, 61(5):577-581.
91. 11C]WIN-35,428 positron emission tomography studies and direct in vitro determinations. J Neurosci 1998, 18(1):419-427.
92. Harvey D.C., Lacan G., Tanious S.P., et al. Recovery from methamphetamine induced long-term nigrostriatal dopaminergic deficits without substantia nigra cell loss. Brain Res 2000, 871(2):259-270.
93. Volkow N.D., Chang L., Wang G.J., et al. Loss of dopamine transporters in methamphetamine abusers recovers with protracted abstinence. J Neurosci 2001, 21(23):9414-9418.
94. Cadet J.L., Krasnova I.N. Molecular bases of methamphetamine-induced neurodegeneration. Int Rev Neurobiol 2009, 88:101-119.
95. 123I] beta-CIT SPECT. Am J Psychiatry 1998, 155(6):832-834.
96. Wang G.J., Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., et al. Cocaine abusers do not show loss of dopamine transporters with age. Life Sci 1997, 61(11):1059-1065.
97. Aronson S.C., Black J.E., McDougle C.J., et al. Serotonergic mechanisms of cocaine effects in humans. Psychopharmacology [Berl] 1995, 119(2):179-185.
98. Satel S.L., Krystal J.H., Delgado P.L., et al. Tryptophan depletion and attenuation of cue-induced craving for cocaine. Am J Psychiatry 1995, 152(5):778-783.
99. Walsh S.L., Preston K.L., Sullivan J.T., et al. Fluoxetine alters the effects of intravenous cocaine in humans. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1994, 14(6):396-407.
100. Jacobsen L.K., Staley J.K., Malison R.T., et al. Elevated central serotonin transporter binding availability in acutely abstinent cocaine-dependent patients. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157(7):1134-1140.
101. Zubieta J.K., Gorelick D.A., Stauffer R., et al. Increased mu opioid receptor binding detected by PET in cocaine-dependent men is associated with cocaine craving. Nat Med 1996, 2(11):1225-1229.
102. Gorelick D.A., Kim Y.K., Bencherif B., et al. Imaging brain mu-opioid receptors in abstinent cocaine users: time course and relation to cocaine craving. Biol Psychiatry 2005, 57(12):1573-1582.
103. Gorelick D.A., Kim Y.K., Bencherif B., et al. Brain mu-opioid receptor binding: relationship to relapse to cocaine use after monitored abstinence. Psychopharmacology [Berl] 2008, 200(4):475-486.
104. Sulzer D. How addictive drugs disrupt presynaptic dopamine neurotransmission. Neuron 2011, 69(4):628-649.
105. Yoder K.K., Constantinescu C.C., Kareken D.A., et al. Heterogeneous effects of alcohol on dopamine release in the striatum: a PET study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007, 31(6):965-973.
106. 11C]raclopride in healthy males. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 1997, 12(2):145-152.
107. Volkow N.D., Wang G.-J., Fowler J.S., et al. Decreases in dopamine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. J Nucl Med 1996, 37:33P.
108. Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Maynard L., et al. Effects of alcohol detoxification on dopamine D2 receptors in alcoholics: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Res 2002, 116(3):163-172.
109. Heinz A., Siessmeier T., Wrase J., et al. Correlation between dopamine D(2) receptors in the ventral striatum and central processing of alcohol cues and craving. Am J Psychiatry 2004, 161(10):1783-1789.
110. Rominger A., Cumming P., Xiong G., et al. [(18) F]fallypride PET measurement of striatal and extrastriatal dopamine D(2/3) receptor availability in recently abstinent alcoholics. Addict Biol 2012, 17(2):490-503.
111. 18F]DMFP PET study in detoxified alcoholic patients. Am J Psychiatry 2005, 162(8):1515-1520.
112. Martinez D., Kim J.H., Krystal J., et al. Imaging the neurochemistry of alcohol and substance abuse. Neuroimag Clin N Am 2007, 17(4):539-555. x.
113. Heinz A.J., Beck A., Meyer-Lindenberg A., et al. Cognitive and neurobiological mechanisms of alcohol-related aggression. Nat Rev Neurosci 2011, 12(7):400-413.
114. Heinz A., Jones D.W., Bissette G., et al. Relationship between cortisol and serotonin metabolites and transporters in alcoholism. Pharmacopsychiatry 2002, 35(4):127-134.
115. Heinz A., Jones D.W., Mazzanti C., et al. A relationship between serotonin transporter genotype and in vivo protein expression and alcohol neurotoxicity. Biol Psychiatry 2000, 47(7):643-649.
116. Szabo Z., Owonikoko T., Peyrot M., et al. Positron emission tomography imaging of the serotonin transporter in subjects with a history of alcoholism. Biol Psychiatry 2004, 55(7):766-771.
117. 11C]DASB imaging of serotonin transporters in patients with alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007, 31(1):28-32.
118. Martinez D., Slifstein M., Gil R., et al. Positron emission tomography imaging of the serotonin transporter and 5-HT(1A) receptor in alcohol dependence. Biol Psychiatry 2009, 65(2):175-180.
119. Hu J., Henry S., Gallezot J.D., et al. Serotonin 1B receptor imaging in alcohol dependence. Biol Psychiatry 2010, 67(9):800-803.
120. 11C]carfentanil positron emission tomography is related to craving and mood in alcohol dependence. Biol Psychiatry 2004, 55(3):255-262.
121. Heinz A., Reimold M., Wrase J., et al. Correlation of stable elevations in striatal mu-opioid receptor availability in detoxified alcoholic patients with alcohol craving: a positron emission tomography study using carbon 11-labeled carfentanil. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005, 62(1):57-64.
122. Weerts E.M., Wand G.S., Kuwabara H., et al. Positron emission tomography imaging of mu- and delta-opioid receptor binding in alcohol-dependent and healthy control subjects. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2011, 35(12):2162-2173.
123. Abi-Dargham A., Krystal J.H., Anjilvel S., et al. Alterations of benzodiazepine receptors in type II alcoholic subjects measured with SPECT and [I-123]iomazenil. Am J Psychiatry 1998, 155(11):1550-1555.
124. Lingford-Hughes A.R., Acton P.D., Gacinovic S., et al. Reduced levels of GABA-benzodiazepine receptor in alcohol dependency in the absence of grey matter atrophy. Br J Psychiatry 1998, 173:116-122.
125. Gilman S., Koeppe R.A., Adams K., et al. Positron emission tomographic studies of cerebral benzodiazepine-receptor binding in chronic alchoholics. Ann Neurol 1996, 40:163-171.
126. 11C]flumazenil binding to benzodiazepine receptors in chronic alcohol-dependent men and healthy controls. Psychiatry Res 1993, 50(1):1-13.
127. 123I-iomazenil single photon emission tomography study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2000, 24(9):1449-1455.
128. Jalan R., Turjanski N., Taylor-Robinson S.D., et al. Increased availability of central benzodiazepine receptors in patients with chronic hepatic encephalopathy and alcohol related cirrhosis. Gut 2000, 46(4):546-552.
129. Staley J.K., Gottschalk C., Petrakis I.L., et al. Cortical gamma-aminobutyric acid type A-benzodiazepine receptors in recovery from alcohol dependence: relationship to features of alcohol dependence and cigarette smoking. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005, 62(8):877-888.
130. Krystal J.H., Staley J., Mason G., et al. Gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors and alcoholism: intoxication, dependence, vulnerability, and treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006, 63(9):957-968.
131. Voruganti L.N., Slomka P., Zabel P., et al. Cannabis induced dopamine release: an in-vivo SPECT study. Psychiatry Res 2001, 107(3):173-177.
132. Stokes P.R., Mehta M.A., Curran H.V., et al. Can recreational doses of THC produce significant dopamine release in the human striatum?. NeuroImage 2009, 48(1):186-190.
133. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol increase dopamine release?. A SPET study. J Psychopharmacol 2011, 25(11):1462-1468.
134. 11C]raclopride positron emission tomography study. Biol Psychiatry 2012, [Epub ahead of print].
135. Abi-Dargham A., Kegels L.S., Martinez D., et al. Dopamine mediation of positive reinforcing effects of amphetamine in stimulant naive healthy volunteers: results from a large cohort. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2003, 13(6):459-468.
136. Sevy S., Smith G.S., Ma Y., et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism and D2/D3 receptor availability in young adults with cannabis dependence measured with positron emission tomography. Psychopharmacology [Berl] 2008, 197(4):549-556.
137. Stokes P.R., Egerton A., Watson B., et al. History of cannabis use is not associated with alterations in striatal dopamine D2/D3 receptor availability. J Psychopharmacol 2012, 26(1):144-149.
138. Hirvonen J., Goodwin R.S., Li C.T., et al. Reversible and regionally selective downregulation of brain cannabinoid CB(1) receptors in chronic daily cannabis smokers. Mol Psychiatry 2011, [Epub ahead of print]. 10.1038/mp.2011.82.