Human safety controversies surrounding nitrate and nitrite in the diet

Nitric Oxide - Biology and Chemistry

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 259-266

  Sindelar, Jeffrey J ^a   Milkowski, Andrew L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

Dietary nitrate nitrite; Meat curing; Nitrite safety

Indexed keywords

INORGANIC SALT; NITRATE; NITRITE; POTASSIUM NITRITE; SODIUM NITRITE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

BANANA; BEAN; BEET; BROCCOLI; CABBAGE; CELERY; CONFERENCE PAPER; DIET; DIETARY INTAKE; FOOD PRESERVATION; FOOD SPOILAGE; HUMAN; LETTUCE; MEAT; MEAT INDUSTRY; MUSHROOM; PEPPER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY CONTROL; RADISH; SAFETY; SPINACH; STRAWBERRY; VEGETABLE;

ANIMALS; DIET; FOOD HANDLING; FOOD SAFETY; HUMANS; MEAT PRODUCTS; NITRATES; NITRITES;

EID: 84861320026     PISSN: 10898603     EISSN: 10898611     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2012.03.011     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (93)

1. A.M. Pearson, and T.A. Gillett Processed Meats third ed. 1996 Chapman & Hall New York, NY
2. R.B. Pegg, and F. Shahidi Nitrite Curing of Meat. The N-Nitrosamine Problem and Nitrite alternatives 2000 Food and Nutrition Press, Inc. Trumbull, CT
3. J.G. Sebranek Advances in the technology of nitrite use and consideration of alternatives Food Technol. 33 1979 58 62 93
4. R.G. Cassens Nitrite-Cured Meat 1990 Food and Nutrition Press, Inc. Trumball, CT
5. R.G. Cassens Composition and safety of cured meats in the USA Food Chem. 59 1997 561 566
6. N.G. Hord, Y. Tang, and N.S. Bryan Food sources of nitrates and nitrites: the physiologic context for potential health benefits Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 90 2009 1 10
7. C.C. Hunault, A.G. van Velzena, A. Sips, R.C. Schothorst, and J. Meulenbelt Bioavailability of sodium nitrite from an aqueous solution in healthy adults Toxicol. Lett. 190 2009 48 53
8. N.S. Bryan, J.W. Calvert, J.W. Elrod, S. Gundewar, S.Y. Ji, and D.J. Lefer Effects of dietary nitrite and nitrate on myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104 2007 19144 19149
9. N.S. Bryan, and N.G. Hord Dietary nitrates and nitrites: the physiological context for potential health benefits N.S. Bryan, Food, Nutrition and the Nitric Oxide Pathway: Biochemistry and Bioactivity 2010 DESTech Publications, Inc. Lancaster, PA 59 77
10. World Health Organization, Nitrate and Nitrite in Drinking Water Development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (pp. 21), Geneva, Switzerland: World Health, Organization (2007) 1-21.
11. D.L. Archer Evidence that ingested nitrate and nitrite are beneficial to health J. Food Protect. 65 2002 872 875
12. National Academy of Sciences, The health effects of nitrate, nitrite and n-nitroso compounds. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, DC, 1981.
13. T.M. Knight, D. Forman, S.A. Aldabbagh, and R. Doll Estimation of dietary intake of nitrate and nitrite in Great Britain Food Chem. Toxicol. 25 1987 277 285
14. European Food Safety Authority, Opinion of the scientific panel on contaminants in the food chain on a request from the European Commission to perform a scientific risk assessment on nitrate in vegetables, EFSA J. 689 (2008) 1-79.
15. I.A. Wolff, and A.E. Wasserman Nitrates, nitrites, and nitrosamines Science 177 1972 15 19
16. J.C. Chung, S.S. Chou, and D.F. Hwang Changes in nitrate and nitrite content of four vegetables during storage at refrigerated and ambient temperatures Food Addit. Contam. 21 2004 317 322
17. D.R. Buege, R. Weiss, W. Ellefson, A survey of nitrate and nitrite in selected food in the USA. from AMIF report Market Basket Survey of Nitrate and Nitrite in Foods in the United States #2, (2002), Available at: http://www.amif.org./ht/a/GetDocumentAction/i/52764, accessed 9-16-2010.
18. J.T. Keeton, W.N. Osburn, M.D. Hardin, N.S. Bryan, M.T. Longnecker, A national survey of the nitrite/nitrate concentrations in cured meat products and non-meat foods available at retail (2009), American Meat Institute Foundation Report, Available at: http://www.amif.org/ht/a/GetDocumentAction/i/52741, accessed 3-2-2010.
19. R.G. Cassens Use of sodium nitrite in cured meats today Food Technol. 49 1995 72 80 115
20. M.D. Pierson, and L.A. Smooth Nitrite, nitrite alternatives, and the control of Clostridium botulinum in cured meats Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 17 1982 141 187
21. W.E. Townsend, D.G. Olson, Cured meats and cured meat products processing, In: J.F. Price, B.S. Schweigert (Eds.), The Science of Meat and Meat By Products (3rd ed.), Food & Nutrition Press, Inc., Westport, CT, 1987, pp. 193-216, 431-456.
22. E.F. Binkerd, and O.E. Kolari The history and use of nitrate and nitrite in the curing of meat Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 13 1975 655 661
23. United States Department of Agriculture, Processing inspectors' calculations handbook (FSIS Directive 7620.3), 1995. Retrieved December 19, 2009, from USDA Web site: http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OPPDE/rdad/FSISDirectives/ 7620-3.pdf, assessed 9-1-2011.
24. United States Code of Federal Regulations. Title 9 Animals and Animal Products Chapter III: Food Safety and Inspection Service Department of Agriculture. Sections 319.2, Products and nitrates and nitrites; 424.21 Curing Agents; 424.22(b) Use of nitrite and sodium ascorbate or sodium erythorbate (isoascorbate) in bacon, 2009.
25. J.M. Barnes, and P.N. Magee Some toxic properties of dimethylnitrosamines Br. J. Ind. Med. 11 1954 167 174
26. P.N. Magee, and J.M. Barnes The production of malignant primary hepatic tumours in the rat by feeding dimethylnitrosamine Br. J. Cancer 10 1956 114 122
27. M.A. Hansen An outbreak of toxic liver injury in ruminants: clinical observations and results of some hepatic tests in cattle and sheep Nord. Vet. Med 16 1964 323
28. N. Koppang An outbreak of toxic liver injury in ruminants: case reports, pathological-anatomical investigations and feeding experiments Nord. Vet. Med 16 1964 305
29. W. Lijinsky, and S.S. Epstein Nitrosamines are environmental carcinogens Nature 225 1970 21
30. P.M. Newberne Nitrite promotes lymphoma incidence in rats Science 204 1979 1079 1081
31. Interagency Working Group on Nitrite Research (U.S.) and United States. Food and Drug Administration, (1980), Report of the interagency working group on nitrite research. Washington, DC, Food and Drug Administration.
32. National Academy of Sciences. Alternatives to the current use of nitrite in foods. Natl. Acad Press, Washington, D.C., 1982.
33. National Toxicology Program. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of sodium nitrite (CAS NO. 7632-00-0) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (drinking water studies). NIH Publication No. 01-3954, Natl. Toxicol. Program Tech. Rep. Ser. 495 (2001) 7-273.
34. M. Campbell, California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Evidence on Developmental and Reproductive Toxicity of Sodium Nitrite: Draft Hazard Identification Document, 2000.
35. S. Preston-Martin, and S.W. Lijinsky Cured meats and childhood cancer (Letters to the Editor) Cancer Cause. Control 5 1994 484 485
36. S. Sarasua, and D.A. Savitz Cured and broiled meat consumption in relation to childhood cancer: Denver, Colorado (United States) Cancer Cause. Control 5 1994 141 148
37. J.M. Peters, S. Preston-Martin, S.J. London, J.D. Bowman, J.D. Buckley, and D.C. Thomas Processed meats and risk of childhood leukemia (California, USA) Cancer Cause. Control 5 1994 195 202
38. S. Preston-Martin, J.M. Pogoda, B.A. Mueller, E.A. Holly, W. Lijinsky, and R.L. Davis Maternal consumption of cured meats and vitamins in relation to pediatric brain tumors Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers. Prev. 5 1996 599 605
39. T.H. Maugh, Study Links Hot Dogs, Cancer. Washington Post, June 3, 1994.
40. D.D. Alexander, A.J. Miller, C.A. Cushing, and K.A. Lowe Processed meat and colorectal cancer: a quantitative review of prospective epidemiologic studies Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 19 2010 328 341
41. J.L. Navia, T. Byers, D. Djordjevic, E. Hentges, J. King, D. Klurfeld, C. Llewellyn, J. Milner, D. Skrypec, and D. Weed Integrating the totality of food and nutrition evidence for public health decision making and communication Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 50 Suppl. 1 2010 1 8
42. D.D. Alexander, D.L. Weed, C.A. Cushing, and K.A. Lowe Meta-analysis of prospective studies of red meat consumption and colorectal cancer Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 20 2011 293 307
43. World Health Organization, IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. preamble to the IARC monographs, 2006, (amended January 2006), Available at: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Preamble/ CurrentPreamble.pdf, accessed April 1, 2010.
44. World Health Organization, IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: ingested nitrates and nitrites, and cyanobacterial peptide toxins Lyon, France: 94 (2006) 14-21, Available at: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Meetings/vol94-participants.pdf, accessed April 1, 2010.
45. Y. Grosse, R. Baan, K. Straif, B. Secretan, F. El Ghissassi, and V. Cogliano Carcinogenicity of nitrate, nitrite, and cyanobacterial peptide toxins Lancet Oncol. 7 2006 628 629
46. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, International Agency for Research on Cancer., et al. (2010), Ingested nitrate and nitrite, and cyanobacterial peptide toxins. Lyon, France Geneva, International Agency for Research on Cancer; Distributed by WHO Press, 2006.
47. Y. Grosse, R. Baan, K. Straif, B. Secretan, F. El Ghissassi, and V. Cogliano On behalf of the WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group, Carcinogenicity of nitrate, nitrite, and cyanobacterial peptide toxins Lancet Oncol. 7 2006 628 629
48. A. Milkowski, H.G. Garg, J.S. Coughlin, and N.S. Bryan Nutritional epidemiology in the context of nitric oxide biology: A risk-benefit evaluation for dietary nitrite and nitrate Nitric oxide 22 2010 110 119
49. World Cancer Research Fund, Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer. Washington, DC: American Institute for Cancer Research, 2007, Available at: http://preventcancer.aicr.org/site/PageServer?pagename= research-science-expert-report, accessed April 15, 2011.
50. P. Boyle, P. Boffetta, and P. Autier Diet, nutrition and cancer: public, media and scientific confusion Ann. Oncol. 19 2008 1665 1667
51. A.S. Truswell Problems with red meat in the WCRF2 Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89 2009 1 2
52. D.D. Alexander, C.A. Cushing, K.A. Lowe, B. Sceurman, and M.A. Roberts Meta-analysis of animal fat or animal protein intake and colorectal cancer Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89 2009 1402 1409
53. D.D. Alexander, and C.A. Cushing Quantitative assessment of red meat or processed meat consumption and kidney cancer Cancer Detect. Prev. 32 2009 340 351
54. D.D. Alexander, L.M. Morimoto, P.J. Mink, and K.A. Lowe Summary and meta-analysis of prospective studies of animal fat intake and breast cancer Nutr. Res. Rev. 25 2010 1 11
55. L.R. Ferguson Meat and cancer Meat Sci. 84 2010 308 313
56. D.D. Alexander, A.J. Miller, C.A. Cushing, K.A. Lowe, Processed meat and colorectal cancer: a quantitative review of prospective epidemiologic studies, technical report for National Cattlemen's Beef Association, 2010, available at: http://www.beefresearch.org/CMDocs/BeefResearch/Nutrition%20Research/ NCBA%20Cancer%20Report%20100r%20Web.pdf, accessed 4-5-2010.
57. J.L. Navia, T. Byers, D. Djordjevic, E. Hentges, J. King, D. Klurfeld, C. Llewellyn, J. Milner, D. Skrypec, and D. Weed Integrating the totality of food and nutrition evidence for public health decision making and communication Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 50 Supl. 1-8 2010
58. R. Huffman, and N.S. Bryan Nitrite and nitrate in the meat industry N.S. Bryan, Food, Nutrition and the Nitric Oxide Pathway: Biochemistry and Bioactivity 2010 DESTech PublicationsInc. Lancaster PA 79 95
59. R.B. Pegg Curing W.K. Jensen, C. Devine, M. Dikeman, Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences 2004 Elsevier Ltd. Oxford, U.K. 349 360
60. J.G. Sebranek, and J.B. Fox A review of nitrite and chloride chemistry: interactions and implications for cured meats J. Sci. Food Agri. 36 1985 1169 1182
61. D.P. Cornforth, and P. Jayasingh Colour and pigment W.K. Jensen, C. Devine, M. Dikeman, Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences 2004 Elsevier Ltd. Oxford, U.K. 249 256
62. R.G. Cassens Residual nitrite in cured meat Food Technol. 51 1997 53 55
63. M.L. Pérez-Rodríguez, N. Bosch-Bosch, and M. Garciá-Mata Monitoring nitrite and nitrate residues in frankfurters during processing and storage Meat Sci. 44 1996 65 73
64. R. Skjelkvåle, and T.B. Tjaberg Comparison of salami sausage produced with and without addition of sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate J. Food Sci. 39 1974 520 524
65. B.D. Eakes, and T.N. Blumer Effect of various levels of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrite on color and flavor of cured loins and country-style hams J. Food Sci. 40 1975 977 980
66. K.O. Honikel Curing agents W.K. Jensen, C. Devine, M. Dikeman, Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences 2004 Elseveier Oxford 195 201
67. T.A. Houser, J.G. Sebranek, W. Núñez Maisonet, J.C. Cordray, B.R. Wiegand, D.U. Ahn, and E.J. Lee The effects of irradiation at 1.6 kGy on quality characteristics of commercially produced ham and pork frankfurters over extended storage J. Food Sci. 70 2005 262 266
68. J.I. Gray, B. Macdonald, A.M. Pearson, and I.D. Morton Role of nitrite in cured meat flavor: a review J. Food Prot. 44 1981 302 312
69. F. Shahidi Flavor of Meat, Meat Products and Seafoods second ed. 1998 Blackie Academic and Professional London, UK pp 290-317
70. J.G. Sebranek Basic curing ingredients R. Tarte, Ingredients in Meat Products 2009 Springer Science + Business Media LLC New York, NY 1 24
71. R.B. Tompkin Nitrite P.M. Davidson, J.N. Sofos, A.L. Branen, Antimicrobials in Food third ed. 2005 CRC Press Taylor & Frances Group Boca Raton, FL. 169 236
72. J.F. Bauermann Processing of poultry products with and without sodium nitrite Food Technol. 33 1979 42 43
73. R.L. Buchanan, and M. Solberg Interaction of sodium nitrate, oxygen and pH on growth of Staphylococcus aureus J. Food Sci. 37 1972 81 85
74. H.G. Bayne, and H.D. Michener Growth of Staphylococcus and Salmonella on frankfurters with and without sodium nitrite Appl. Microbiol. 30 1975 844 849
75. T.A. Roberts The microbial role of nitrite and nitrate J. Sci. Food Agri. 26 1975 1755 1760
76. R.P. Allaker, L.S. Silva Mendez, J.M. Hardie, and N. Benjamin Antimicrobial effect of acidified nitrite on periodontal bacteria Oral Microbiol. Immunol. 16 2001 253 256
77. J.K.S. Moller, and L.H. Skibsted Nitric oxide and myoglobins Chem. Rev. 102 2002 1167 1178
78. J.N. Sofos, F.F. Busta, and C.E. Allen Botulism control by nitrite and sorbate in cured meats: a review J. Food Prot. 42 1979 739 770
79. J.N. Sofos, F.F. Busta, K. Bhothipaksa, and C.E. Allen Sodium nitrite and sorbic acid effects on Clostridium botulinum toxin formation in chicken frankfurter-type emulsions J. Food Sci. 44 1979 668 672, 675
80. G.O. Hustad, J.H. Cerveny, H. Trenk, R.H. Deibel, D.A. Kautter, T. Fazio, R.W. Johnston, and O.E. Kolari Effect of sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate on botulinal toxin production and nitrosamine formation in wieners Appl. Microbiol. 26 1973 22 26
81. R.L. Buchanan, M.H. Golden, and J.G. Phillips Expanded models for the non-thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes J. Appl. Microbiol. 82 1997 567 577
82. L.L. Duffy, P.B. Vanderlinde, and F.H. Grau Growth of Listeria monocytogenes on vacuum-packed cooked meats: effects of pH, aw, nitrite and ascorbate Int. J. Food Microbiol. 23 1994 377 390
83. A.O. Gill, and R.A. Holley Interactive inhibition of meat spoilage and pathogenic bacteria by lysozyme, nisin and EDTA in the presence of nitrite and sodium chloride at 24 °C Int. J. Food Microbiol. 80 2003 251 259
84. J.D. Legan, D.L. Seman, A.L. Milkowski, J.A. Hirschey, and M.H. Vandeven Modeling the growth boundary of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat cooked meat products as a function of the product salt, moisture, potassium lactate, and sodium diacetate concentrations J. Food Prot. 67 2004 2195 2204
85. 2 Int. J. Food Microbiol. 34 1997 221 232
86. J.H. Schlyter, K.A. Glass, J. Loeffelholz, A.J. Degnan, and J.B. Luchansky The effects of diacetate with nitrite, lactate, or pediocin on the viability of Listeria monocytegenes in turkey slurries Int. J. Food Microbiol. 19 1993 271 281
87. D.L. Seman, A.C. Borger, J.D. Meyer, P.A. Hall, and A.L. Milkowski Modeling the growth of Listeria monocytogenes in cured ready-to-eat processed meat products by manipulation of sodium chloride, sodium diacetate, potassium lactate, and product moisture content J. Food Prot. 65 2002 651 658
88. United State Department of Agriculture Eastern Regional Research Laboratory. Pathogen Modeling Program (PMP) Version 7, 2006, Available at: http://ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=6786, accessed April 1, 2010.
89. J.J. Sindelar, J.C. Cordray, D.G. Olson, J.G. Sebranek, and J.A. Love Investigating quality attributes and consumer acceptance of uncured, no-nitrate/nitrite-added commercial hams, bacons, and frankfurters J. Food Sci. 72 2007 S551 S559
90. J.J. Sindelar, J.C. Cordray, J.G. Sebranek, J.A. Love, and D.U. Ahn Effects of varying levels of vegetable juice powder and incubation time on color, residual nitrate and nitrite, pigment, pH, and trained sensory attributes of ready-to-eat uncured ham J. Food Sci. 72 2007 S388 S395
91. J.J. Sindelar, J.C. Cordray, J.G. Sebranek, J.A. Love, and D.U. Ahn Effects of vegetable juice powder concentration and storage time on some chemical and sensory quality attributes of uncured, emulsified cooked sausages J. Food Sci. 72 2007 S324 S332
92. M.J. Terns, A.L. Milkowski, J.R. Claus, and J.J. Sindelar Investigating the effect of incubation time and starter culture addition level on quality attributes of indirectly cured, emulsified cooked sausages Meat Sci. 88 2011 454 461
93. M.J. Terns, A.L. Milkowski, S.A. Rankin, and J.J. Sindelar Determining the impact of varying levels of cherry powder and starter culture on quality and sensory attributes of indirectly cured, emulsified cooked sausages Meat Sci. 88 2011 311 318