Second language processing shows increased native-like neural responses after months of no exposure

PLoS ONE

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 2012, Pages

  Morgan Short, Kara ^a   Finger, Ingrid ^b,c   Grey, Sarah ^b   Ullman, Michael T ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

^b GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF RIO GRANDE DO SUL   (Brazil)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE; BRAIN FUNCTION; COMPREHENSION; CONTROLLED STUDY; EVENT RELATED POTENTIAL; EXPLICIT MEMORY; EXPOSURE; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; IMPLICIT MEMORY; LANGUAGE PROCESSING; LEARNING; MEMORY CONSOLIDATION; NORMAL HUMAN; SECOND LANGUAGE PROCESSING; TRAINING; ADULT; EVOKED RESPONSE; LANGUAGE; NERVE CELL; PHYSIOLOGY;

ADULT; EVOKED POTENTIALS; HUMANS; LANGUAGE; LEARNING; NEURONS;

EID: 84859051256     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19326203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032974     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. Mackey A, Gass SM, (2012) Handbook of second language acquisition New York Routledge.
2. Doughty CJ, Long MH, (2005) The handbook of second language acquisition Oxford Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
3. Kroll JF, de Groot AMB, (2005) Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches New York Oxford University Press.
4. Kotz SA, (2009) A critical review of ERP and fMRI evidence on L2 syntactic processing. Brain & Language 109: 68-74.
5. Steinhauer K, White EJ, Drury JE, (2009) Temporal dynamics of late second language acquisition: Evidence from event-related brain potentials. Second Language Research 25: 13-41.
6. Hernandez AE, Hofmann J, Kotz SA, (2007) Age of acquisition modulates neural activity for both regular and irregular syntactic functions. NeuroImage 36: 912-923.
7. Schmidt GL, Roberts TPL, (2009) Second language research using magnetoencephalography: A review. Second Language Research 25: 135-166.
8. Mueller JL, (2005) Electrophysiological correlates of second language processing. Second Language Research 21: 152-174.
9. van Hell JG, Tokowicz N, (2010) Event-related brain potentials and second language learning: Syntactic processing in late L2 learners at different L2 proficiency levels. Second Language Research 26: 43-74.
10. Ullman MT, (2001) The neural basis of lexicon and grammar in first and second language: The declarative/procedural model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 4: 105-122.
11. Ullman MT, (2005) A cognitive neuroscience perspective on second language acquisition: The declarative/procedural model. In: Sanz C, editors. Mind and context in adult second language acquisition: Methods, theory and practice Washington, DC Georgetown University Press pp. 141-178.
12. Birdsong D, Molis M, (2001) On the evidence for maturational constaints in second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language 44: 235-249.
13. DeKeyser RM, (2000) The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22: 499-533.
14. Gillon Dowens M, Vergara M, Barber H, Carreiras M, (2010) Morphosyntactic processing in late second-language learners. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22: 1870-1887.
15. Hahne A, Mueller JL, Clahsen H, (2006) Morphological processing in a second language: Behavioral and event-related brain potential evidence for storage and decomposition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18: 121-134.
16. Bardovi-Harlig K, Stringer D, (2010) Variables in second language attrition: Advancing the state of the art. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 32: 1-45.
17. Bahrick HP, (1984) Semantic memory content in permastore: Fifty years of memory for Spanish learned in school. Journal of Experimental Psychology 113: 1-37.
18. Weltens B, Van Els TJM, Schils E, (1989) The long-term retention of French by Dutch students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 11: 205-216.
19. Hansen L, (1999) Second language attrition in Japanese contexts New York Oxford University Press.
20. Schmid MS, (2004) Use it or lose it? Language use, Language attitudes, and Language proficiency among German speakers in Vancouver. In: Schulze M, Skidmore JM, John DG, Liebscher G, Siebel-Achenbach S, editors. German diasporic experiences: Identity, migration, and loss Waterloo, Canada Wilfrid Laurier University Press pp. 491-502.21.
21. Gardner RC, Lalonde RN, MacPherson J, (1985) Social factors in second language attrition. Language Learning 35: 519-540.
22. Grendel M, (1993) Verlies en herstel van lexicale kennis (The loss and regaining of lexical knowledge) [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation] Nijmegan Netherlands: University of Nijmegen.
23. Mehotcheva TH, (2010) After the fiesta is over: Foreign language attrition of Spanish in Dutch and German Erasmus students [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation] Groningen, Netherlands Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
24. Murtagh L, van der Silk F, (2004) Retention of Irish skills: A longitudinal study of a school-acquired second language. International Journal of Bilingualism 8: 279-302.
25. Ullman MT, Miranda RA, Travers ML, (2008) Sex differences in the neurocognition of language. In: Becker JB, Berkley KJ, Geary N, Hampson E, Herman J, editors. Sex on the brain: From genes to behavior NY Oxford University Press pp. 291-309.
26. Bowden HW, Sanz C, Stafford CA, (2005) Individual differences: Age, sex, working memory, and prior knowledge. In: Sanz C, editors. Mind and context in adult second language acquisition: Methods, theory, and practice Washington, DC Georgetown University Press pp. 105-140.
27. Leask SJ, Crow TJ, (2001) Word acquisition reflects lateralization of hand skill. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5: 513-516.
28. Norris JM, Ortega L, (2000) Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning 50: 417-528.
29. Spada N, Tomita Y, (2010) Interactions between type of instruction and type of language feature: A meta-analysis. Language Learning 60: 263-308.
30. Doughty CJ, (2003) Instructed SLA: Constraints, compensation, and enhancement. In: Doughty C, Long MH, editors. The handbook of second language acquisition Malden, MA Blackwell pp. 256-310.
31. Morgan-Short K, Steinhauer K, Sanz C, Ullman MT, (2012) Explicit and implicit second language training differentially affect the achievement of native-like brain activation patterns. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 24: 933-947.
32. Ellis R, (2010) Does explicit grammar instruction work? NINJAL Project Review 1: 3-22.
33. Sanz C, Morgan-Short K, (2005) Explicitness in pedagogical interventions: Input, practice, and feedback. In: Sanz C, editors. Mind and context in adult second language acquisition: Methods, theory, and practice Washington, DC Georgetown University Press pp. 234-263.
34. Rosa EM, Leow RP, (2004) Computerized task-based exposure, explicitness, type of feedback, and Spanish L2 development. Modern Language Journal 88: 192-216.
35. Sanz C, Morgan-Short K, (2004) Positive evidence versus explicit rule presentation and explicit negative feedback: A computer-assisted study. Language Learning 54: 35-78.
36. VanPatten B, Oikkenon S, (1996) Explanation versus structured input in processing instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18: 495-510.
37. McLaughlin J, Osterhout L, Kim A, (2004) Neural correlates of second-language word learning: Minimal instruction produces rapid change. Nature Neuroscience 7: 703-704.
38. Tokowicz N, MacWhinney B, (2005) Implicit and explicit measures of sensitivity to violations in second language grammar: An event-related potential investigation. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27: 173-204.
39. Friederici AD, Steinhauer K, Pfeifer E, (2002) Brain signatures of artificial language processing: Evidence challenging the critical period hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99: 529-534.
40. Morgan-Short K, Sanz C, Steinhauer K, Ullman MT, (2010) Second language acquisition of gender agreement in explicit and implicit training conditions: An event-related potential study. Language Learning 60: 154-193.
41. Kutas M, Hillyard SA, (1980) Reading senseless sentences: Brain potentials reflect semantic incongruity. Science 207: 203-205.
42. Lau EF, Phillips C, Poeppel D, (2008) A cortical network for semantics: (de)constructing the N400. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9: 920-933.
43. Steinhauer K, Connolly JF, (2008) Event-related potentials in the study of language. In: Stemmer B, Whitaker HA, editors. Handbook of the neuroscience of language Oxford, UK Elsevier pp. 91-104.
44. Hagoort P, Brown CM, (1999) Gender electrified: ERP evidence on the syntactic nature of gender processing. Journal of Psycholinguist Research 28: 715-728.
45. Osterhout L, Bersick M, McLaughlin J, (1997) Brain potentials reflect violations of gender stereotypes. Memory and Cognition 25: 273-285.
46. Neville HJ, Nicol JL, Barss A, Forster KI, Garrett MF, (1991) Syntactically based sentence processing classes: Evidence from event-related brain potentials. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 3: 151-165.
47. Friederici AD, Pfeifer E, Hahne A, (1993) Event-related brain potentials during natural speech processing: Effects of semantic, morphological and syntactic violations. Cognitive Brain Research 1: 183-192.
48. Hasting AS, Kotz SA, (2008) Speeding up syntax: On the relative timing and automaticity of local phrase structure and morphosyntactic processing as reflected in event-related brain potentials. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 20: 1207-1219.
49. Pakulak E, Neville HJ, (2010) Proficiency differences in syntactic processing of monolingual native speakers indexed by event-related potentials. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22: 2728-2744.
50. Friederici AD, Gunter T, Hahne A, Mauth K, (2004) The relative timing of syntactic and semantic processes in sentence comprehension. NeuroReport 15: 165-169.
51. Hahne A, Friederici AD, (1999) Electrophysiological evidence for two steps in syntactic analysis: Early automatic and late controlled processes. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 11: 194-205.
52. van den Brink D, Hagoort P, (2004) The influence of semantic and syntactic context constraints on lexical selection and integration in spoken-word comprehension as revealed by ERPs. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16: 1068-1084.
53. Ullman MT, (2004) Contributions of memory circuits to language: The declarative/procedural model. Cognition 92: 231-270.
54. Martin-Loeches M, Munoz F, Casado P, Melcon A, Fernandez-Frias C, (2005) Are the anterior negativities to grammatical violations indexing working memory? Psychophysiology 42: 508-519.
55. Mueller JL, Hahne A, Fujii Y, Friederici AD, (2005) Native and nonnative speakers' processing of a miniature version of Japanese as revealed by ERPs. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 17: 1229-1244.
56. Steinhauer K, Drury JE, (2012) On the early left-anterior negativity (ELAN) in syntax studies. Brain and Language 120: 135-162.
57. Ye Z, Luo Y, Friederici DAD, Zhou X, (2006) Semantic and syntactic processing in Chinese sentence comprehension: Evidence from event-related potentials. Brain Research 1071: 186-196.
58. Osterhout L, Holcomb PJ, (1992) Event-related brain potentials elicited by syntactic anomaly. Journal of Memory and Language 31: 785-806.
59. Kaan E, Harris A, Gibson E, Holcomb P, (2000) The P600 as an index of syntactic integration difficulty. Language and Cognitive Processes 15: 159-201.
60. Friederici AD, Kotz SA, (2003) The brain basis of syntactic processes: Functional imaging and lesion studies. NeuroImage 20: S8-S17.
61. Moreno EM, Kutas M, (2005) Processing semantic anomalies in two languages: An electrophysiological exploration in both languages of Spanish-English bilinguals. Brain Research Cognitive Brain Research 22: 205-220.
62. Hahne A, Friederici AD, (2001) Processing a second language: Late learners' comprehension mechanisms as revealed by event-related brain potentials. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 4: 123-141.
63. Ojima S, Nakata H, Kakigi R, (2005) An ERP study on second language learning after childhood: Effects of proficiency. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 17: 1212-1228.
64. Osterhout L, Poliakov A, Inoue K, McLaughlin J, Valentine G, et al. (2008) Second-language learning and changes in the brain. Journal of Neurolinguistics 21: 509-521.
65. Weber-Fox CM, Neville HJ, (1996) Maturational constraints on functional specializations for language processing: ERP and behavioral evidence in bilingual speakers. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 8: 231-256.
66. Isel F, (2007) Syntactic and referential processes in second-language learners: Event-related brain potential evidence. NeuroReport 18: 1885-1889.
67. Chen L, Shu H, Liu Y, Zhao J, Li P, (2007) ERP signatures of subject-verb agreement in L2 learning. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10: 161-174.
68. Alanen R, (1995) Input enhancement and rule presentation in second language acquisition. In: Schmidt R, editors. Attention and awareness in foreign language learning Honolulu, HI University of Hawai'i Press pp. 259-302.
69. DeKeyser RM, (1995) Learning second language grammar rules: An experiment with a miniature linguistic system. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 17: 379-410.
70. De Graaff R, (1997) The experanto experiment: Effects of explicit instruction on second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19: 249-276.
71. Williams D, Botting N, Boucher J, (2008) Language in autism and specific language impairment: Where are the links? Psychological Bulletin 134: 944-963.
72. Bever TG, Hansen RE, (1988) The induction of mental structures while learning to use symbolic system. In Proceedings of the tenth annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society Hillsdale, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc pp. 276-283.
73. Opitz B, Friederici AD, (2003) Interactions of the hippocampal system and the prefrontal cortex in learning language-like rules. NeuroImage 19: 1730-1737.
74. Hudson Kam CL, Newport EL, (2009) Getting it right by getting it wrong: When learners change languages. Cognitive Psychology 59: 30-66.
75. Saffran JR, (2001) The use of predictive dependencies in language learning. Journal of Memory and Language 44: 493-515.
76. Saffran JR, Hauser M, Seibel R, Kapfhamer J, Tsao F, et al. (2008) Grammatical pattern learning by human infants and cotton-top tamarin monkeys. Cognition 107: 479-500.
77. Bahlmann J, Gunter TC, Friederici AD, (2006) Hierarchical and linear sequence processing: An electrophysiological exploration of two different grammar types. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18: 1829-1842.
78. Ferman S, Olshtain E, Schechtman E, Karni A, (2009) The acquisition of a linguistic skill by adults: Procedural and declarative memory interact in the learning of articifical morphological rule. Journal of Neurolinguistics 22: 384-412.
79. Hancock R, Bever TG, (2009) The study of syntactic cycles as an experimental science. In: Gelderen Ev, editors. Cyclical change Amsterdam & Philadelphia John Benjamins Publishing Company pp. 303-322.
80. Oldfield RC, (1971) The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia 9: 97-113.
81. Carlson R, (1994) A Grammar of Supyire. Mouton Grammar Library 14 Berlin Mouton de Gruyter.
82. Macmillan NA, Creelman CD, (2005) Detection Theory: A User's Guide Mahwah, New Jersey Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Inc.
83. Polich J, (2007) Updating P300: An integrative theory of P3a and P3b. Clinical Neurophysiology 118: 2128-2148.
84. Leow RP, Bowles MA, (2005) Attention and awareness in SLA. In: Sanz C, editors. Mind and context in adult second language acquisition: Methods, theory, and practice Washington, DC Georgetown University Press pp. 179-203.
85. Squire LR, Schacter DL, (2002) Neuropsychology of memory New York The Guildford Press.
86. Squire LR, Wixted JT, (2011) The cognitive neuroscience of human memory since H.M. Annual Review of Neuroscience 34: 259-288.
87. Eichenbaum H, (2002) The cognitive neuroscience of memory: An introduction New York Oxford University Press, Inc.
88. Izquierdo I, Bevilaqua LR, Rossato JI, Bonini JS, Da Silva WC, et al. (2006) The connection between the hippocampal and the striatal memory systems of the brain: A review of recent findings. Neurotoxicity Research 10: 113-121.
89. Wixted JT, (2004) The psychology and neuroscience of forgetting. Annual Review of Psychology 55: 235-269.
90. Bjork RA, (1992) Interference and forgetting. In: Squire LR, editors. Encyclopedia of learning and memory New York MacMillan pp. 283-288.
91. Brown GDA, Lewandowsky S, (2010) Forgetting in memory models: Arguments against trace decay and consolidation failure. In: Della Sala S, editors. Forgetting New York Psychology Press pp. 49-75.
92. Neath I, Surprenant AM, (2003) Human Memory Belmont, CA Wadsworth.
93. Takashima A, Petersson KM, Rutters F, Tendolkar I, Jensen O, et al. (2006) Declarative memory consolidation in humans: A prospective functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103: 756-761.
94. Foerde KE, (2007) Habit learning in humans: Acquisition, performance, and interactions with declarative memory [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation] Los Angeles, CA University of California, Los Angeles.
95. McGaugh JL, (2000) Memory-A century of consolidation. Science 287: 248-251.
96. Durrant SJ, Taylor C, Cairney S, Lewis PA, (2011) Sleep-dependent consolidation of statistical learning. Neuropsychologia 49: 1322-1331.
97. Albouy G, Sterpenich V, Balteau E, Vandewalle G, Desseilles M, et al. (2008) Both the hippocampus and striatum are involved in consolidation of motor sequence memory. Neuron 58: 261-272.
98. Stickgold R, Walker MP, (2007) Sleep-dependent memory consolidation and reconsolidation. Sleep Medicine 8: 331-343.
99. Marshall L, Born J, (2007) The contribution of sleep to hippocampus-dependent memory consolidation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11: 442-450.
100. Diekelmann S, Wilhelm I, Born J, (2009) The whats and whens of sleep-dependent memory consolidation. Sleep Medicine Reviews 13: 309-321.
101. Dorfberger S, Adi-Japha E, Karni A, (2007) Reduced susceptibility to interference in the consolidation of motor memory before adolescence. PLoS ONE 2: 1-6.
102. Gais S, Albouy G, Boly M, Dang-Vu TT, Darsaud A, et al. (2007) Sleep transforms the cerebral trace of declarative memories. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 18778-18783.
103. Walker MP, Brakefield T, Seidman J, (2003) Sleep and the time course of motor skill learning. Learning & Memory 10: 275-284.
104. Karni A, Sagi D, (1993) The time course of learning a visual skill. Nature 365: 250-252.
105. Foerde K, Knowlton BJ, Poldrack RA, (2006) Modulation of competing memory systems by distraction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 103: 11778-11783.
106. Seidler RD, Purushotham A, Kim S-G, Ugurbil K, Willingham D, et al. (2005) Neural correlates of encoding and expression in implicit sequence learning. Experimental Brain Research 165: 114-124.
107. Fletcher PC, Zafiris O, Frith CD, Honey RAE, Corlett PR, et al. (2005) On the benefits of not trying: Brain activity and connectivity reflecting the interactions of explicit and implicit sequence learning. Cerebral Cortex 15: 1002-1015.
108. Poldrack RA, Clark J, Pare-Blagoev EJ, Shohamy D, Moyano JC, et al. (2001) Interactive memory systems in the human brain. Nature 414: 546-550.
109. Packard MG, (1999) Glutamate infused posttraining into the hippocampus or caudate-putamen differentially strengthens place and response learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96: 12881-12886.
110. Poldrack RA, Packard MG, (2003) Competition among multiple memory systems: Converging evidence from animal and human brain studies. Neuropsychologia 41: 245-251.
111. Pinker S, Ullman MT, (2002) The past and future of the past tense. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6: 456-463.
112. Gillon Dowens M, Guo T, Guo J, Barber H, Carreiras M, (2011) Gender and number processing in Chinese learners of Spanish- evidence from event related potentials. Neuropsychologia 49: 1651-1659.
113. Sanz C, (2005) Adult SLA: The interaction between external and internal factors. In: Sanz C, editors. Mind and context in adult second language acquisition: Methods, theory, and practice Washington, DC Georgetown University Press pp. 3-20.
114. McGaugh JL, Izquierdo I, (2000) The contribution of pharmacology to research on the mechanisms of memory formation. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 21: 208-210.
115. McClelland JL, (2010) Emergence in cognitive science. Topics in Cognitive Science 2: 751-770.
116. Tucker MA, Hirota Y, Wamsley EJ, Lau H, Chaklader A, et al. (2006) A daytime nap containing solely non-REM sleep enhances declarative but not procedural memory. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 86: 241-247.
117. Ullman MT, (2007) The biocognition of the mental lexicon. In: Gaskell MG, editors. The Oxford handbook of psycholinguistics Oxford, UK Oxford University Press pp. 267-286.
118. Davis MH, Betta AMD, Macdonald MJE, Gaskell MG, (2008) Learning and consolidation of novel spoken words. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 21: 803-820.
119. Clay F, Bowers JS, Davis CJ, Hanley DA, (2007) Teaching adults new words: The role of practice and consolidation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 33: 970-976.
120. Kuriyama K, Stickgold R, Walker MP, (2004) Sleep-dependent learning and motor-skill complexity. Learning & Memory 11: 705-713.
121. Clahsen H, Felser C, Neubauer K, Sato M, Silva R, (2010) Morphological structure in native and nonnative language processing. Language Learning 60: 21-43.
122. Walenski M, Ullman MT, (2005) The science of language. The Linguistic Review 22: 327-346.
123. Ullman MT, (2001) A neurocognitive perspective on language: The declarative/procedural model. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2: 717-726.
124. Ullman MT, (2012) The declarative/procedural model. In: Robinson P, editors. Routledge encyclopedia of second language acquisition New York Routledge. In press.
125. Morgan-Short K, Ullman MT, (2012) The neurocognition of second language. In: Mackey A, Gass S, editors. Handbook of second language acquisition New York Routledge pp. 282-299.
126. Clahsen H, Felser C, (2006) Grammatical Processing in Language Learners. Applied Psycholinguistics 27: 3-42.
127. Clahsen H, Felser C, (2006) How native-like is non-native language processing? Trends in Cognitive Science 10: 564-570.