Management of bacterial infections in cirrhosis

Journal of Hepatology

Volumn 56, Issue SUPPL. 1, 2012, Pages

  Fernández, Javier ^a   Gustot, Thierry ^b,c,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BARCELONA   (Spain)

^b ERASME HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

^c UNIVERSITÉ LIBRE DE BRUXELLES   (Belgium)

^d CENTRE DE RECHERCHE BIOMÉDICALE BICHAT BEAUJON CRB3   (France)

Author keywords

Albumin; Antibiotic resistance; Antibiotic treatment; CRP; Diagnosis; Early goal therapy; ESBL producing enterobacteria; Procalcitonin; Quinolones; SIRS criteria; Third generation cephalosporins

Indexed keywords

ALBUMIN; AMOXICILLIN PLUS CLAVULANIC ACID; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AZITHROMYCIN; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CEFOTAXIME; CEFTAZIDIME; CEFTRIAXONE; CEPHALOSPORIN; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; CLOXACILLIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; LEVOFLOXACIN; LINEZOLID; MACROLIDE; MEROPENEM; MOXIFLOXACIN; NITROFURANTOIN; NORFLOXACIN; OFLOXACIN; QUINOLONE; SULFAMETHOXAZOLE; TRIMETHOPRIM; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS; ARTICLE; ASCITES; BACTEREMIA; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BACTERIAL PERITONITIS; DIAGNOSIS; EMPYEMA; FLUID THERAPY; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HUMAN; KIDNEY FAILURE; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PNEUMONIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESUSCITATION; SEPTIC SHOCK; SOFT TISSUE INFECTION; URINARY TRACT INFECTION;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; HUMANS; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; SEPSIS;

EID: 84856509099     PISSN: 01688278     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0168-8278(12)60002-6     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. J Fernandez, M Navasa, J Gomez, J Colmenero, J Vila, V Arroyo et al. Bacterial infections in cirrhosis: epidemiological changes with invasive procedures and norfloxacin prophylaxis Hepatology 35 2002 140 148 (Pubitemid 34032554)
2. M Merli, C Lucidi, V Giannelli, M Giusto, O Riggio, M Falcone et al. Cirrhotic patients are at risk for health care-associated bacterial infections Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 8 2010 979 985
3. B Bernard, JD Grange, EN Khac, X Amiot, P Opolon, T Poynard Antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of bacterial infections in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal bleeding: a meta-analysis Hepatology 29 1999 1655 1661 (Pubitemid 29247035)
4. H Yoshida, T Hamada, S Inuzuka, T Ueno, M Sata, K Tanikawa Bacterial infection in cirrhosis, with and without hepatocellular carcinoma Am J Gastroenterol 88 1993 2067 2071 (Pubitemid 23352173)
5. J Llach, A Rimola, M Navasa, P Gins, JM Salmeron, A Gins et al. Incidence and predictive factors of first episode of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis with ascites: relevance of ascitic fluid protein concentration Hepatology 16 1992 724 727
6. P Gins, A Rimola, R Planas, V Vargas, F Marco, M Almela et al. Norfloxacin prevents spontaneous bacterial peritonitis recurrence in cirrhosis: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial Hepatology 12 1990 716 724 (Pubitemid 20349256)
7. T Gustot, F Durand, D Lebrec, JL Vincent, R Moreau Severe sepsis in cirrhosis Hepatology 50 2009 2022 2033
8. V Arvaniti, G D'Amcio, G Fede, P Manousou, E Tsochatzis, M Pleguezuelo et al. Infections in patients with cirrhosis increase mortality four-fold and should be used in determining prognosis Gastroenterology 139 2010 1246 1256
9. MG Foreman, DM Mannino, M Moss Cirrhosis as a risk factor for sepsis and death: analysis of the National Hospital Discharge Survey Chest 124 2003 1016 1020 (Pubitemid 37123324)
10. A Plessier, MH Denninger, Y Consigny, F Pessione, C Francoz, F Durand et al. Coagulation disorders in patients with cirrhosis and severe sepsis Liver Int 23 2003 440 448 (Pubitemid 37540983)
11. HE Wasmuth, D Kunz, E Yagmur, A Timmer-Stranghöner, D Vidacek, E Siewert et al. Patients with acute on chronic liver display "sepsis- like" immune paralysis J Hepatol 42 2005 195 201 (Pubitemid 40143465)
12. RP Mookerjee, V Stadlbauer, S Lidder, GA Wright, SJ Hodges, NA Davies et al. Neutrophil dysfunction in alcoholic hepatitis superimposed on cirrhosis is reversible and predicts the outcome Hepatology 46 2007 831 840 (Pubitemid 47436130)
13. R Wiest, G Garcia-Tsao Bacterial translocation (BT) in cirrhosis Hepatology 41 2005 422 433 (Pubitemid 40289486)
14. B Appenrodt, F Grünhage, MG Gentemann, L Thyssen, T Sauerbruch, F Lammert Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2 (NOD2) variants are genetic risk factors for death and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in liver cirrhosis Hepatology 51 2010 1327 1333
15. I Altorjav, Z Vitalis, I Tornai, K Palatka, S Kacska, G Farkas et al. Mannose-binding lectin deficiency confers risk for bacterial infections in a large Hungarian cohort of patients with liver cirrhosis J Hepatol 53 2010 484 491
16. HD Nischalke, HD Nischalke, C Berger, K Aldenhoff, L Thyssen, M Gentemann et al. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 promotor and intron 2 polymorphisms are associated with increased risk for spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in liver cirrhosis J Hepatol 2011 [Epub ahead of print].
17. B Byl, I Roucloux, A Crusiaux, E Dupont, J Devire Tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 6 plasma levels in infected cirrhotic patients Gastroenterology 104 1993 1492 1497 (Pubitemid 23235425)
18. J Deviere, J Content, C Denys, P Vandenbussche, L Schandene, J Wybran et al. Excessive in vitro bacterial lipolysaccharide-induced production of monkines in cirrhosis Hepatology 11 1990 628 634 (Pubitemid 20151741)
19. M Navasa, A Follo, X Filella, W Jimenez, A Francitorra, R Planas et al. Tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis: relationship with the development of renal impairment and mortality Hepatology 27 1998 1227 1232 (Pubitemid 28227848)
20. G Tritto, Z Bechlis, V Stadlbauer, N Davies, R Frances, N Shah et al. Evidence of neutrophil functional defect despite inflammation in stable cirrhosis J Hepatol 2011 [Epub ahead of print].
21. RC Bone, CJ Grodzin, RA Balk Sepsis: a new hypothesis for pathogenesis of the disease process Chest 112 1997 235 243 (Pubitemid 27343624)
22. PA Berres, B Schnyder, E Yagmur, B Inglis, S Stanzel, JJ Tischendorf et al. Longitudinal monocyte human leukocyte antigen-DR expression is a prognostic marker in critically ill patients with decompensated liver cirrhosis Liver Int 29 2009 536 543
23. A Rimola, G García-Tsao, M Navasa, LJ Piddock, R Planas, B Bernard et al. Diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a consensus document. International Ascites Club J Hepatol 32 2000 142 153 (Pubitemid 30039459)
24. P Tandon, G Garcia-Tsao Bacterial infections, sepsis, and multiorgan failure in cirrhosis Semin Liver Dis 28 2008 26 42 (Pubitemid 351326531)
25. S Hansen, S Møller, F Bendtsen, G Jensen, JH Henriksen Diurnal variation and dispersion in QT interval in cirrhosis: relation to haemodynamic changes J Hepatol 47 2007 373 380 (Pubitemid 47189606)
26. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference: definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis Crit Care Med 20 1992 864 874
27. M Cazzaniga, E Dionigi, G Gobbo, A Fioretti, V Monti, F Salerno The systemic inflammatory response syndrome in cirrhotic patients: relationship with their in-hospital outcome J Hepatol 51 2009 475 482
28. D Thabut, J Massard, A Gangloff, N Carbonell, C Francoz, E Nguyen-Khac et al. Model for end-stage liver disease score and systemic inflammatory response are major prognostic factors in patients with cirrhosis and acute functional renal failure Hepatology 46 2007 1872 1882
29. A Pfäfflin, E Schleicher Inflammation markers in point-of-care testing (POCT) Anal Bioanal Chem 393 2009 1473 1480
30. WB Park, KD Lee, CS Lee, HC Jang, HB Kim, HS Lee et al. Production of C-reactive protein in Escherichia coli-infected patients with liver dysfunction due to liver cirrhosis Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 51 2005 227 230 (Pubitemid 40460957)
31. B Müller, JC White, ES Nylén, RH Snider, KL Becker, JF Habener Ubiquitous expression of the calcitonin-I gene in multiple tissues in response to sepsis J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 2001 396 404 (Pubitemid 32109825)
32. CH Li, RB Yang, JH Pang, SS Chang, CC Lin, CH Chen et al. Procalcitonin as a biomarker for bacterial infections in patients with liver cirrhosis in the emergency department Acad Emerg Med 18 2011 121 126
33. I Mackenzie, J Woodhouse C-reactive protein concentrations during bacteraemia: A comparison between patients with and without liver dysfunction Intensive Care Med 32 2006 1344 1351 (Pubitemid 44267922)
34. DP Bota, M Van Nuffelen, AN Zakariah, JL Vincent Serum levels of C-reactive protein and procalcitonin in critically ill patients with cirrhosis of the liver J Lab Clin Med 146 2005 347 351 (Pubitemid 41712021)
35. J Acevedo, J Fernandez, X Filella, M Castro, D Roca, P Gines et al. Diagnostic capacity and prognostic value of procalcitonin in cirrhotic patients with bacterial infection Hepatology 52 4 Suppl 2010 905A
36. F Schepis, M Bianchini, I Ferreti, M Marino, S Bonfreschi, G Dattomo et al. Procalcitonin is the best diagnostic and prognostic marker of sepsis in decompensated cirrhotic patients J Hepatol 52 Suppl 1 2010 S85
37. A Tsiakalos, A Karatzaferis, P Ziakas, G Hatzis Acute-phase proteins as indicators of bacterial infection in patients with cirrosis Liver Int 29 2009 1538 1542
38. A Viallon, F Zeni, V Pouzet, C Lambert, S Quenet, G Aubert et al. Serum and ascitic procalcitonin levels in cirrhotic patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: diagnostic value and relationship to pro-inflammatory cytokines Intensive Care Med 26 2000 1082 1088
39. IS Elefsiniotis, M Skounakis, E Vezali, KD Pantazis, A Petrocheilou, M Pirounaki et al. Clinical significance of serum procalcitonin levels in patients with acute or chronic liver disease Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 18 2006 525 530 (Pubitemid 43832753)
40. S Connert, W Stremmel, C Elsing Procalcitonin is a valid marker of infection in decompensated cirrhosis Z Gastroenterol 41 2003 165 170 (Pubitemid 36313736)
41. European Association for the Study of the Liver EASL clinical practice guidelines on the management of ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis J Hepatol 53 2010 397 417
42. BA Runyon, AASLD Practice Guidelines Committee Management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis: an update Hepatology 49 2009 2087 2107
43. RC Butani, RT Shaffer, RD Szyjkowski, BE Weeks, LG Speights, SC Kadakia Rapid diagnosis of infected ascitic fluid using leukocyte esterase dipstick testing Am J Gastroenterol 99 2004 532 537 (Pubitemid 38524136)
44. J Castellote, C Lopez, J Gornals, G Tremosa, ER Fariña, C Baliellas et al. Rapid diagnosis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis by use of reagent strips Hepatology 37 2003 893 896 (Pubitemid 36397401)
45. G Vanbiervliet, C Rakotoarisoa, J Filippi, O Guérin, O Calle, P Hastier et al. Diagnostic accuracy of a rapid urine-screening test (Multistix8SG) in cirrhotic patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 14 2002 1257 1260 (Pubitemid 35471534)
46. JB Nousbaum, JF Cadranel, P Nahon, EN Khac, R Moreau, T Thevenot et al. Diagnostic accuracy of the Multistix 8 SG reagent strip in diagnosis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Hepatology 45 2007 1275 1281 (Pubitemid 46775791)
47. MA Parsi, SN Saadeh, NN Zein, GL Davis, R Lopez, J Boone et al. Ascitic fluid lactoferrin for diagnosis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Gastroenterology 135 2008 803 807
48. G Soriano, J Castellote, C Alvarez, A Girbau, J Gordillo, C Baliellas et al. Secondary bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis: a retrospective study of clinical and analytical characteristics, diagnosis and management J Hepatol 52 2010 39 44
49. RP Dellinger, MM Levy, JM Carlet, J Bion, MM Parker, R Jaeschke International Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines Committee Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock Crit Care Med 36 2008 296 327
50. A Kumar, R Zarychanski, B Light, J Parrillo, D Maki, D Simon Cooperative Antimicrobial Therapy of Septic Shock (CATSS) Database Research Group Early combination antibiotic therapy yields improved survival compared with monotherapy in septic shock: a propensity-matched analysis Crit Care Med 38 2010 1773 1785
51. A Kumar, D Roberts, KE Wood, B Light, JE Parrillo, S Sharma et al. Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock Crit Care Med 34 2006 1589 1596 (Pubitemid 43810035)
52. HS Cheong, C Kang, JA Lee, SY Moon, MK Joung, DR Chung et al. Clinical significance and outcome of nosocomial acquisition of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in patients with liver cirrhosis Clin Infect Dis 48 2009 1230 1236
53. B Campillo, JP Richardet, T Kheo, C Dupeyron Nosocomial spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and bacteremia in cirrhotic patients: impact of isolate type on prognosis and characteristics of infection Clin Infect Dis 35 2002 1 10 (Pubitemid 34666853)
54. F Bert, M Andreu, F Durand, F Degos, JO Galdbart, R Moreau et al. Nosocomial and community-acquired spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: comparative microbiology and therapeutic implications Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 22 2003 10 15 (Pubitemid 36286687)
55. JY Song, SJ Jung, CW Park, JW Sohn, WJ Kim, MJ Kim et al. Prognostic significance of infection acquisition sites in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: nosocomial versus community acquired J Korean Med Sci 21 2006 666 671
56. J Acevedo, J Fernandez, M Castro, O Garcia, C Rodriguez de Lope, M Navasa et al. Current efficacy of recommended empirical antibiotic therapy in patients with cirrhosis and bacterial infection J Hepatol 50 Suppl 1 2009 S5
57. ND Friedman, KS Kaye, JE Stout, SA McGarry, SL Trivette, JP Briggs et al. Health care-associated bloodstream infections in adults: a reason to change the accepted definition of community-acquired infections Ann Intern Med 137 2002 791 797 (Pubitemid 35334450)
58. J Cabrera, V Arroyo, AM Ballesta, A Rimola, J Gual, M Elena et al. Aminoglycoside nephrotoxicity in cirrhosis. Value of urinary beta 2-microglobulin to discriminate functional renal failure from acute tubular damage Gastroenterology 82 1982 97 105 (Pubitemid 12183309)
59. E Ricart, G Soriano, MT Novella, J Ortiz, M Sabat, L Kolle et al. Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid versus cefotaxime in the therapy of bacterial infections in cirrhotic patients J Hepatol 32 2000 596 602 (Pubitemid 30180379)
60. P Angeli, S Guarda, S Fasolato, E Miola, R Craighero, F Piccolo et al. Switch therapy with ciprofloxacin vs. intravenous ceftazidime in the treatment of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in patients with cirrhosis: similar efficacy at lower cost Aliment Pharmacol Ther 23 2006 75 84 (Pubitemid 43381169)
61. R Terg, S Cobas, E Fassio, G Landeira, B Ríos, W Vasen et al. Oral ciprofloxacin after a short course of intravenous ciprofloxacin in the treatment of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: results of a multicenter, randomized study J Hepatol 33 2000 564 569
62. M Navasa, A Follo, JM Llovet, G Clemente, V Vargas, A Rimola et al. Randomized, comparative study of oral ofloxacin versus intravenous cefotaxime in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Gastroenterology 111 1996 1011 1017 (Pubitemid 26327604)
63. YH Park, HC Lee, HG Song, S Jung, SH Ryu, JW Shin et al. Recent increase in antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis adversely affects the clinical outcome in Korea J Gastroenterol Hepatol 18 2003 927 933 (Pubitemid 37056172)
64. F Cereto, X Herranz, E Moreno, A Andreu, A Vergara, D Fontanals et al. Role of host and bacterial virulence factors in Escherichia coli spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 20 2008 924 929
65. S Angeloni, C Leboffe, A Parente, M Venditti, A Giordano, M Merli et al. Efficacy of current guidelines for the treatment of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in the clinical practice World J Gastroenterol 14 2008 2757 2762
66. T Yakar, M Gülü, E Serin, H Aliskan, E Husamettin A recent evaluation of empirical cephalosporin treatment and antibiotic resistance of changing bacterial profiles in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Dig Dis Sci 55 2009 1149 1154
67. K Song, JH Jeon, WB Park, SW Park, HB Kim, MD Oh et al. Clinical outcomes of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis due to extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella species: A retrospective matched case-control study BMC Infectious Diseases 9 2009 41 46
68. J Heo, YS Seo, HJ Yim, T Hahn, SH Park, SH Ahn et al. Clinical features and prognosis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in Korean patients with liver cirrhosis: a multicenter retrospective study Gut Liver 3 2009 197 204
69. L Piroth, A Pechinot, A Minello, B Jaulhac, I Patry, T Hadou et al. Bacterial epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance in ascitic fluid: a 2-year retrospective study Scand J Infect Dis 41 2009 1 5
70. A Umgelter, W Reindl, M Miedaner, RM Schmid, W Huber Failure of current antibiotic first-line regimens and mortality in hospitalized patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Infection 37 2009 2 8
71. D Yahav, A Lador, M Paul, L Leibovici Efficacy and safety of tigecycline: a systematic review and meta-analysis J Antimicrob Chemother 2011 Jun 18 [Epub ahead of print].
72. D Koulenti, J Rello Hospital-acquired pneumonia in the 21st century: a review of existing treatment options and their impact on patient care Expert Opin Pharmacother 7 2006 1555 1569 (Pubitemid 44209600)
73. JS Bajaj, AN Ananthakrishnan, M Hafeezullah, Y Zadvornova, A Dye, EL McGinley et al. Clostridium difficile is associated with poor outcomes in patients with cirrhosis: A national and tertiary center perspective Am J Gastroenterol 105 2010 106 113
74. J Rodríguez-Baño, JC Alcalá, JM Cisneros, F Grill, A Oliver, JP Horcajada et al. Community infections caused by extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli Arch Intern Med 168 2008 1897 1902
75. J Rodríguez-Baño, MD Navarro, L Romero, MA Muniain, M de Cueto, MJ Ríos et al. Bacteremia due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli in the CTX-M era: a new clinical challenge Clin Infect Dis 43 2006 1407 1414 (Pubitemid 44845640)
76. L Ruiz del Arbol, J Urman, J Fernández, M González, M Navasa, A Monescillo et al. Cardiovascular, renal and hepatic hemodynamic derangement in cirrhotic patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Hepatology 38 2003 1210 1218 (Pubitemid 37314829)
77. V Arroyo, J Fernández, P Gineís Pathogenesis and treatment of hepatorenal syndrome Semin Liver Dis 28 2008 81 95 (Pubitemid 351326535)
78. A Follo, JM Llovet, M Navasa, R Planas, X Forns, A Francitorra et al. Renal impairment after spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis: incidence, clinical course, predictive factors and prognosis Hepatology 20 1994 1495 1501 (Pubitemid 24359062)
79. S Fasolato, P Angeli, L Dallagnese, G Maresio, E Zola, E Mazza et al. Renal failure and bacterial infections in patients with cirrhosis: epidemiology and clinical features Hepatology 45 2007 223 229 (Pubitemid 46144382)
80. P Sort, M Navasa, V Arroyo, X Aldeguer, R Planas, L Ruiz del Arbol et al. Effect of intravenous albumin on renal impairment and mortality in patients with cirrhosis and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis N Engl J Med 5 1999 403 409 (Pubitemid 29362513)
81. J Fernández, M Navasa, JC García-Pagan, J Abraldes, W Jimenez, J Bosch et al. Effect of intravenous albumin on systemic and hepatic hemodynamics and vasoactive neurohormonal systems in patients with cirrhosis and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis J Hepatol 41 2004 384 390 (Pubitemid 39158747)
82. J Fernández, J Monteagudo, X Bargalló, W Jiménez, J Bosch, V Arroyo et al. A randomized unblinded pilot study comparing albumin versus hydroxyethyl starch in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Hepatology 42 2005 627 634 (Pubitemid 41233655)
83. SH Sigal, CM Stanca, J Fernandez, V Arroyo, M Navasa Restricted use of albumin for spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Gut 56 2007 597 599 (Pubitemid 46580522)
84. A Nazar, M Guevara, C Terra, M Martín-Llahí, ME Baccaro, M Pavesi et al. Effects of albumin administration in patients with cirrhosis and bacterial infections other than SBP. A randomized controlled study J Hepatol 50 Suppl 1 2009 S86
85. E Rivers, B Nguyen, S Havstad, J Ressler, A Muzzin, B Knoblich Early Goal-Directed Therapy Collaborative Group Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic snock N Engl J Med 345 2001 1368 1377
86. AP Delaney, A Dan, J McCaffrey, S Finfer The role of albumin as a resuscitation fluid for patients with sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis Crit Care Med 39 2011 386 391
87. D De Backer, P Biston, J Devriendt, C Madl, D Chochrad, C Aldecoa SOAP II Investigators Comparison of dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of shock N Engl J Med 362 2010 779 789
88. JA Russell, KR Walley, J Singer, AC Gordon, PC Hébert, DJ Cooper VASST Investigators Vasopressin versus norepinephrine infusion in patients with septic shock N Engl J Med 358 2008 877 887 (Pubitemid 351397087)
89. PE Marik, SM Pastores, D Annane, GU Meduri, CL Sprung, W Arlt et al. Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of corticosteroid insufficiency in critically ill adult patients: consensus statements from an international task force by the American College of Critical Care Medicine Crit Care Med 36 2008 1937 1949
90. CL Sprung, D Annane, D Keh, R Moreno, M Singer, K Freivogel CORTICUS Study Group Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock N Engl J Med 358 2008 111 124
91. MH Tsai, YS Peng, YC Chen, NJ Liu, YP Ho, JT Fang et al. Adrenal insufficiency in patients with cirrhosis, severe sepsis and septic shock Hepatology 43 2006 673 681
92. J Fernandez, A Escorsell, M Zabalza, V Felipe, M Navasa, A Mas et al. Adrenal insufficiency in patients with cirrhosis and septic shock: effect of treatment with hydrocortisone on survival Hepatology 44 2006 1288 1295 (Pubitemid 44748379)
93. YM Arabi, A Aljumah, O Dabbagh, HM Tamim, AH Rishu, A Al-Abdulkareem et al. Low-dose hydrocortisone in patients with cirrhosis and septic shock: a randomized controlled trial CMAJ 182 2010 1971 1977
94. J Goulis, A Armonis, D Patch, C Sabin, L Greenslade, AK Burroughs Bacterial infection is independently associated with failure to control bleeding in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal hemorrhage Hepatology 27 1998 1207 1212 (Pubitemid 28227845)
95. J Goulis, D Patch, AK Burroughs Bacterial infection in the pathogenesis of variceal bleeding Lancet 353 1999 139 142 (Pubitemid 29088094)
96. A Rimola, F Bory, J Terés, RM Perez-Ayuso, V Arroyo, J Rodes Oral non-absorbable antibiotics prevent infection in cirrhosis with gastrointestinal haemorrhage Hepatology 5 1985 463 467 (Pubitemid 15065955)
97. G Soriano, C Guarner, A Tomás, C Villanueva, X Torras, D González et al. Norfloxacin prevents bacterial infection in cirrhotics with gastrointestinal haemorrhage Gastroenterology 103 1992 1267 1272
98. M Blaise, D Pateron, JC Trinchet, S Levacher, M Beaugrand, JL Pourriat Systemic antibiotic therapy prevents bacterial infection in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal haemorrhage Hepatology 20 1994 34 38 (Pubitemid 24196488)
99. A Pauwels, N Mostefa-Kara, B Debenes, B Debenes, E Degoutte, VG Lévy Systemic antibiotic prophylaxis after gastrointestinal haemorrhage in cirrhotic patients with a high risk of infection Hepatology 24 1996 802 806 (Pubitemid 26334276)
100. WJ Hsieh, HC Lin, SJ Hwang, MC Hou, FY Lee, FY Chang et al. The effect of ciprofloxacin in the prevention of bacterial infections in patients with cirrhosis after upper gastrointestinal bleeding Am J Gastroenterol 93 1998 962 966
101. MC Hou, HC Lin, TT Liu, BI Kuo, FY Lee, FY Chang et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis after endoscopic therapy prevents rebleeding in acute variceal hemorrhage: a randomized trial Hepatology 39 2004 746 753 (Pubitemid 38337654)
102. M Sàbat, L Kolle, G Soriano, J Ortiz, J Pamplona, MT Novella et al. Parenteral antibiotic prophylaxis of bacterial infections does not improve cost-efficacy of oral norfloxacin in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal bleeding Am J Gastroenterol 93 1998 2457 2462 (Pubitemid 29018555)
103. NC Chavez-Tapia, T Barrientos-Gutierrez, FI Tellez-Avila, K Soares-Weiser, M Uribe Antibiotic prophylaxis for cirrhotic patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding Cochrane Database Syst Rev 9 2010 CD002907
104. R de Franchis, Baveno V Faculty Revising consensus in portal hypertension: report of the Baveno V consensus workshop on methodology of diagnosis and therapy in portal hypertension J Hepatol 53 2010 762 768
105. J Fernandez, L Ruiz del Arbol, C Gomez, R Durandez, R Serradilla, C Guarner et al. Norfloxacin vs ceftriaxone in the prophylaxis of infections in patients with advanced cirrhosis and hemorrhage Gastroenterology 131 2006 1049 1056 (Pubitemid 44498687)
106. MR Brown, G Jones, KL Nash, M Wright, IN Guha Antibiotic prophylaxis in variceal hemorrhage: timing, effectiveness and Clostridium difficile rates World J Gastroenterol 16 2010 5317 5323
107. M Andreu, R Solá, A Sitges-Serra, C Alia, M Gallen, MC Vila et al. Risk factors for spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Gastroenterology 104 1993 1133 1138
108. C Guarner, R Sola, G Soriano, MT Novella, MC Vila, M Sàbat et al. Risk of a first community-acquired spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhotics with low ascitic protein levels Gastroenterology 117 1999 414 419 (Pubitemid 29352951)
109. J Fernandez, N Navasa, R Planas, S Montoliu, D Monfort, G Soriano et al. Primary prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis delays hepatorenal syndrome and improves survival in cirrhosis Gastroenterology 133 2007 818 824 (Pubitemid 47374144)
110. R Terg, E Fassio, M Guevara, M Cartier, C Longo, R Lucero et al. Ciprofloxacin in primary prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a randomized, placebo-controlled study J Hepatol 48 2008 774 779
111. L Titó, A Rimola, P Gins, J Llach, V Arroyo, J Rodés Recurrence of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis: frequency and predictive factors Hepatology 8 1988 27 31 (Pubitemid 18092054)
112. TM Bauer, A Follo, M Navasa, J Vila, R Planas, G Clemente et al. Daily norfloxacin is more effective than weekly rufloxacin in prevention of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis recurrence Dig Dis Sci 47 2002 1356 1361 (Pubitemid 34606641)
113. JM Llovet, P Rodríguez-Iglesias, E Moitinho, R Planas, R Bataller, M Navasa et al. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in patients with cirrhosis undergoing selective intestinal decontamination J Hepatol 26 1997 88 95
114. C Dupeyron, N Mangeney, L Sedrati, B Campillo, P Fouet, G Leluan Rapid emergence of quinolone resistance in cirrhotic patients treated with norfloxacin to prevent spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Antimicrob Agents Chemother 38 1994 340 344 (Pubitemid 24054258)
115. JR Aparicio, J Such, S Pascual, M Pérez-Mateo, J Plaza, A Arroyo Development of quinolone-resistant strains of Escherichia coli in stools of patients with cirrhosis undergoing norfloxacin prophylaxis: clinical consequences J Hepatol 31 1999 277 283 (Pubitemid 29349754)
116. M Novella, R Solà, G Soriano, M Andreu, J Gana, J Ortiz et al. Continuous versus inpatient prophylaxis of the first episode of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis with norfloxacin Hepatology 25 1997 532 536 (Pubitemid 27106428)
117. J Ortiz, MC Vila, G Soriano, J Miñana, J Gana, B Mirelis et al. Infections caused by Escherichia coli resistant to norfloxacin in hospitalized cirrhotic patients Hepatology 29 1999 1064 1069 (Pubitemid 29168737)
118. F Cereto, I Molina, A González, O Del Valle, R Esteban, J Guardia et al. Role of immunosuppression in the development of quinolone-resistant Escherichia coli spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and in the mortality of E. coli spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Aliment Pharmacol Ther 17 2003 695 701 (Pubitemid 36418894)
119. A Louvet, F Wartel, H Castel, S Dharancy, A Hollebecque, V Canva-Delcambre et al. Infection in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with steroids: early response to therapy is the key factor Gastroenterology 137 2009 541 548
120. GR Bernard, JL Vincent, PF Laterre, SP LaRosa, JF Dhainaut, A Lopez-Rodriguez Recombinant human protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) study group Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis N Engl J Med 344 2001 699 709 (Pubitemid 32204987)
121. C Francoz, J Belghiti, V Vilgrain, D Sommacale, V Paradis, B Condat et al. Splanchnic vein thrombosis in candidates for liver transplantation: usefulness of screening and anticoagulation Gut 54 2005 691 697 (Pubitemid 40559257)
122. KA Tazi, JJ Quioc, V Saada, A Bezeaud, D Lebrec, R Moreau Upregulation of TNF-alpha production signaling pathways in monocytes from patients with advanced cirrhosis: possible role of Akt and IRAK-M J Hepatol 45 2006 280 289 (Pubitemid 44026567)
123. N Coant, M Simon-Rudler, T Gustot, M Fasseu, S Gandoura, K Ragot et al. Glycogen synthase kinase 3 involvement in the excessive proinflammatory response to LPS in patients with decompensated cirrhosis J Hepatol 55 2011 784 793
124. O Le Moine, A Marchant, D De Groote, C Azar, M Goldman, J Deviere Role of defective monocyte interleukin-10 release in tumor necrosis factor-alpha overproduction in alcoholic cirrhosis Hepatology 22 1995 1436 1439
125. A Rimola, JM Salmerón, G Clemente, L Rodrigo, A Obrador, ML Miranda et al. Two different dosages of cefotaxime in the treatment of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis: results of a prospective, randomized, multicenter study Hepatology 21 1995 674 679
126. P Gins, J Fernández, F Durand, F Saliba Management of critically-ill cirrhotic patients J Hepatol 56 Suppl 1 2012 S13 S24