Smoking and health: Association between telomere length and factors impacting on human disease, quality of life and life span in a large population-based cohort under the effect of smoking duration

Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 425-442

  Babizhayev, Mark A ^a,b   Yegorov, Yegor E ^c  

^a Innovative Vision Products Incorporated   (United States)

^b MOSCOW HELMHOLTZ RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF EYE DISEASES   (Russian Federation)

^c ENGELHARDT INSTITUTE OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY   (Russian Federation)

Author keywords

Biological aging; Cardiovascular diseases; Cumulative oxidative stress; Telomere attrition (expressed in white blood cells); Telomere length; Tobacco smoking

Indexed keywords

CARCININE; CARNOSINE; GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; NITRIC OXIDE; PEROXYNITRITE; PROTEIN C JUN; RAP1 PROTEIN; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; SYNAPTOPHYSIN; TANKYRASE; TELOMERASE REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE; TELOMERIC REPEAT BINDING FACTOR 1; TELOMERIC REPEAT BINDING FACTOR 2; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR AP 1; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ACUTE HEART INFARCTION; AGING; ARTERY LESION; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD CLOTTING; BLOOD PRESSURE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CELL PROLIFERATION; CHRONIC DISEASE; CIGARETTE SMOKING; COHORT ANALYSIS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DNA DAMAGE; DNA REPLICATION; EXERCISE TOLERANCE; GENERAL ASPECTS OF DISEASE; HEALTH; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LEUKOCYTE; LIFESPAN; LIPID PEROXIDATION; NEOPLASM; OBESITY; OXIDATION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; SMOKING; STRESS; SURVIVAL; TELOMERE; THROMBOSIS; TOBACCO;

COHORT STUDIES; DISEASE; HUMANS; LONGEVITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; QUALITY OF LIFE; SMOKING; TELOMERE SHORTENING;

EID: 79960022355     PISSN: 07673981     EISSN: 14728206     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-8206.2010.00866.x     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Hatsukami D.K., Stead L.F., Gupta P.C. Tobacco addiction. Lancet (2008) 371 2027-2038.
2. The Office of Tobacco Control (OTC). Press Release May 2004. The Office of Tobacco Control, Department of Health and Children, Dublin, Ireland, 2004.
3. Cigarette smoking among adults - United States, 1991. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. (1993) 42: 230-233.
4. Cokkinides V., Bandi P., McMahon C., Jemal A., Glynn T., Ward E. Tobacco control in the United States--recent progress and opportunities. CA Cancer J. Clin. (2009) 59 352-365.
5. Jiang J., Liu B., Nasca P.C. et al. Comparative study of control selection in a national population-based case-control study: estimating risk of smoking on cancer deaths in Chinese men. Int. J. Med. Sci. (2009) 6 329-337.
6. The Worldwide Smoking Epidemic. Council Reports. J. Am. Med. Soc. (1990) 263: 3312-3318.
7. Bartecchi C.E., MacKenzie T.D., Schrier R.W. The human costs of tobacco use (1). N. Engl. J. Med. (1994) 330 907-912.
8. Environmental Protection Agency. Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: Lung cancer and other disorders, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC, 1992.
9. The health consequences of involuntary smoking: a report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, Md.: Department of Health and Human Services, 1986. (DHHS publication no. (CDC) 87-8398).
10. Heck J.E., Stücker I., Allwright S. et al. Home and workplace smoking bans in Italy, Ireland, Sweden, France, and the Czech Republic. Eur. Respir. J. (2010) 35 969-979.
11. McNabola A., Gill L.W. The control of environmental tobacco smoke: a policy review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. (2009) 6 741-758.
12. Howard G., Wagenknecht L.E., Burke G.L. et al. Cigarette smoking and progression of atherosclerosis: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. JAMA (1998) 279 119-124.
13. Meyers D.G., Neuberger J.S. Cardiovascular effect of bans on smoking in public places. Am. J. Cardiol. (2008) 102 1421-1424.
14. Nakamura K., Huxley R., Ansary-Moghaddam A., Woodward M. The hazards and benefits associated with smoking and smoking cessation in Asia: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Tob. Control. (2009) 18 345-353.
15. O'Flaherty M., Bishop J., Redpath A. et al. Coronary heart disease mortality among young adults in Scotland in relation to social inequalities: time trend study. BMJ (2009) 339 b2613.
16. Gupta R. Recent trends in coronary heart disease epidemiology in India. Indian Heart J. (2008) 60 (2 Suppl B): B4-B18.
17. Csiszar A., Podlutsky A., Wolin M.S., Losonczy G., Pacher P., Ungvari Z. Oxidative stress and accelerated vascular aging: implications for cigarette smoking. Front. Biosci. (2009) 14 3128-3144.
18. Alberg A.J. Cigarette smoking: health effects and control strategies. Drugs Today (Barc). (2008) 44 895-904.
19. Santini F., Casali G., Lusini M. et al. Mid-term results after extensive vein patch reconstruction and internal mammary grafting of the diffusely diseased left anterior descending coronary artery. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. (2002) 21 1020-1025.
20. Chow C.K. Cigarette smoking and oxidative damage in the lung. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. (1993) 686 289-298.
21. Thorne D., Wilson J., Kumaravel T.S., Massey E.D., McEwan M. Measurement of oxidative DNA damage induced by mainstream cigarette smoke in cultured NCI-H292 human pulmonary carcinoma cells. Mutat. Res. (2009) 673 3-8.
22. Church D.F., Pryor W.A. Free-radical chemistry of cigarette smoke and its toxicological implications. Environ. Health Perspect. (1985) 64 111-126.
23. Stone K.K., Bermudes E. Aqueous extracts of cigarette tar containing free radicals cause DNA nicks in mammalian cells. Environ. Health Perspect. (1986) 102 173-177.
24. Frei B., Forte T.M., Ames B.N. Gas phase oxidants of cigarette smoke induce lipid peroxidation and changes in lipoprotein properties in human blood plasma. Biochem. J. (1991) 277 133-138.
25. Steinbrecher U.P., Parthasarathy S., Leake D.S., Witztum J.L., Steinberg D. Modification of low density lipoprotein by endothelial cells involves lipid peroxidation and degradation of low density lipoprotein phospholipids. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (1984) 81 3883-3887.
26. Witztum J.L., Steinberg D. Role of oxidized LDL in atherogenesis. J. Clin. Invest. (1991) 88 1785-1792.
27. Hulea S.A., Olinescu R., Nitã S., Crocnan D., Kummerow F.A. Cigarette smoking causes biochemical changes in blood that are suggestive of oxidative stress: a case-control study. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. Oncol. (1995) 14 173-180.
28. Babizhayev M.A., Savel'yeva E.L., Moskvina S.N., Yegorov Y.E. Telomere length is a biomarker of cumulative oxidative stress, biologic age, and an independent predictor of survival and therapeutic treatment requirement associated with smoking behavior. Am. J. Ther. (2010) Mar 29. [Epub ahead of print].
29. Atzmon G., Cho M., Cawthon R.M. et al. Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Genetic variation in human telomerase is associated with telomere length in Ashkenazi centenarians. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (2010) 107 (Suppl 1): 1710-1717.
30. Krupski W.C. The peripheral vascular consequences of smoking. Ann. Vasc. Surg. (1991) 5 291-304.
31. McBride P.E. The health consequences of smoking: cardiovascular diseases. Med. Clin. North Am. (1992) 76 333-353.
32. Shah P.K., Helfant R.H. Smoking and coronary artery disease. Chest (1988) 94 449-452.
33. Sugiishi M., Takatsu F. Cigarette smoking is a major risk factor for coronary spasm. Circulation (1993) 87 76-79.
34. Armani C., Landini L. Jr, Leone A. Molecular and biochemical changes of the cardiovascular system due to smoking exposure. Curr. Pharm. Des. (2009) 15 1038-1053.
35. Garbin U., Fratta Pasini A., Stranieri C. et al. Cigarette smoking blocks the protective expression of Nrf2/ARE pathway in peripheral mononuclear cells of young heavy smokers favouring inflammation. PLoS ONE (2009) 4(12) e8225.
36. Ross R. Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease. Am. Heart J. (1999) 138 S419-S420.
37. Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature (2002) 420 868-874.
38. Hansson G.K. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med. (2005) 352 1685-1695.
39. Murray C.J., Lopez A.D. Global mortality, disability, and the contribution of risk factors: global burden of disease study. Lancet (1997) 349 1436-1442.
40. Mathers C.D., Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med. (2006) 3 2011-2030.
41. Griendling K.K., Sorescu D., Ushio-Fukai M. NAD(P)H oxidase: role in cardiovascular biology and disease. Circ. Res. (2000) 86 494-501.
42. Haddad J.J. Oxygen sensing and oxidant/redox-related pathways. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. (2004) 316 969-977.
43. De Martin.R., Hoeth M., Hofer-Warbinek R., Schmid J.A. The transcription factor NF-kappa B and the regulation of vascular cell function. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (2000) 20 83-88.
44. Pryor W.A., Prier D.G., Church D.F. Electron-spin resonance study of mainstream and sidestream cigarette smoke: nature of the free radicals in gasphase smoke and in cigarette tar. Environ. Health Perspect. (1983) 47 345-355.
45. Pryor W.A., Stone K., Zang L.Y., Bermudez E. Fractionation of aqueous cigarette tar extracts: fractions that contain the tar radical cause DNA damage. Chem. Res. Toxicol. (1998) 11 441-448.
46. Zang L.Y., Stone K., Pryor W.A. Detection of free radicals in aqueous extracts of cigarette tar by electron spin resonance. Free Radic. Biol. Med. (1995) 19 161-167.
47. Fruhwirth G.O., Loidl A., Hermetter H. Oxidized phospholipids: from molecular properties to disease. Biochim. Biophys. Acta (2007) 1772 718-736.
48. Rouhanizadeh M., Hwang J., Clempus R.E. et al. Oxidized-1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine induces vascular endothelial superoxide production: implication of NADPH oxidase. Free Radic. Biol. Med. (2005) 39 1512-1522.
49. Rahman I., Adcock I.M. Oxidative stress and redox regulation of lung inflammation in COPD. Eur. Respir. J. (2006) 28 219-242.
50. Rahman I., MacNee W. Lung glutathione and oxidative stress: implications in cigarette smoke-induced airway disease. Am. J. Physiol. (1999) 277(6 Pt 1): L1067-L1088.
51. Rahman I., MacNee W. Oxidative stress and regulation of glutathione in lung inflammation. Eur. Respir. J. (2000) 16 534-554.
52. Mena S., Ortega A., Estrela J.M. Oxidative stress in environmental-induced carcinogenesis. Mutat. Res. (2009) 674 36-44.
53. De Lange T. Telomere-related genome instability in cancer. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. (2005) 70 197-204.
54. Broccoli D., Young J.W., de Lange T. Telomerase activity in normal and malignant hematopoietic cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (1995) 92 9082-9086.
55. Bodnar A.G., Ouellette M., Frolkis M. et al. Extension of life-span by introduction of telomerase into normal human cells. Science (1998) 279 349-352.
56. Allsopp R.C., Vaziri H., Patterson C. et al. Telomere length predicts replicative capacity of human fibroblasts. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (1992) 89 10114-10118.
57. Baird D.M., Rowson J., Wynford-Thomas D., Kipling D. Extensive allelic variation and ultrashort telomeres in senescent human cells. Nat. Genet. (2003) 33 203-207.
58. Cherif H., Tarry J.L., Ozanne S.E., Hales C.N. Ageing and telomeres: a study into organ- and gender-specific telomere shortening. Nucleic Acids Res. (2003) 31 1576-1583.
59. Herbig U., Ferreira M., Condel L., Carey D., Sedivy J.M. Cellular senescence in aging primates. Science (2006) 311(5765) 1257.
60. Harley C.B., Futcher A.B., Greider C.W. Telomeres shorten during ageing of human fibroblasts. Nature (1990) 345 458-460.
61. Hastie N.D., Dempster M., Dunlop M.G., Thompson A.M., Green D.K., Allshire R.C. Telomere reduction in human colorectal carcinoma and with ageing. Nature (1990) 346 866-868.
62. Ishii A., Nakamura K., Kishimoto H. et al. Telomere shortening with aging in the human pancreas. Exp. Gerontol. (2006) 41 882-886.
63. Vleck C.M., Haussmann M.F., Vleck D. The natural history of telomeres: tools for aging animals and exploring the aging process. Exp. Gerontol. (2003) 38 791-795.
64. Lombard D.B., Chua K.F., Mostoslavsky R., Franco S., Gostissa M., Alt F.W. DNA repair, genome stability, and aging. Cell (2005) 120 497-512.
65. Lou Z., Chen J. Cellular senescence and DNA repair. Exp. Cell Res. (2006) 312 2641-2646.
66. Fitzpatrick A.L., Kronmal R.A., Gardner J.P. et al. Leukocyte telomere length and cardiovascular disease in the cardiovascular health study. Am. J. Epidemiol. (2007) 165 14-21.
67. de Lange T. Shelterin: the protein complex that shapes and safeguards human telomeres. Genes Dev. (2005) 19 2100-2110.
68. Cawthon R.M., Smith K.R., O'Brien E., Sivatchenko A., Kerber R.A. Association between telomere length in blood and mortality in people aged 60years or older. Lancet (2003) 361 393-395.
69. Bischoff C., Graakjaer J., Petersen H.C. et al. The heritability of telomere length among the elderly and oldest-old. Twin. Res. Hum. Genet. (2005) 8 433-439.
70. Wong J.M., Collins K. Telomere maintenance and disease. Lancet (2003) 362 983-988.
71. Campisi J., d'Adda di Fagagna F. Cellular senescence: when bad things happen to good cells. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. (2007) 8 729-740.
72. Stewart S.A., Weinberg R.A. Telomeres: cancer to human aging. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. (2006) 22 531-557.
73. Shay J.W., Wright W.E. Telomerase activity in human cancer. Curr. Opin. Oncol. (1996) 8 66-71.
74. von Zglinicki T. Oxidative stress shortens telomeres. Trends Biochem. Sci. (2002) 27 339-344.
75. Njajou O.T., Cawthon R.M., Damcott C.M. et al. Telomere length is paternally inherited and is associated with parental lifespan. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (2007) 104 12135-12139.
76. Aviv A., Valdes A.M., Spector T.D. Human telomere biology: pitfalls of moving from the laboratory to epidemiology. Int. J. Epidemiol. (2006) 35 1424-1429.
77. Finch C.E. The Biology of Aging, Academic Press, Burlington, MA, 2007.
78. Falconer D.S., Mackay T.F.C. Introduction to Quantitative Genetics, Addison Wesley Longman, Essex, UK, 1996.
79. Slagboom P.E., Droog S., Boomsma D.I. Genetic determination of telomere size in humans: a twin study of three age groups. Am. J. Hum. Genet. (1994) 55 876-882.
80. Vasa-Nicotera M., Brouilette S., Mangino M. et al. Mapping of a major locus that determines telomere length in humans. Am. J. Hum. Genet. (2005) 76 147-151.
81. Andrew T., Aviv A., Falchi M. et al. Mapping genetic loci that determine leukocyte telomere length in a large sample of unselected female sibling pairs. Am. J. Hum. Genet. (2006) 78 480-486.
82. Blasco M.A. Telomere length, stem cells and aging. Nat. Chem. Biol. (2007) 3 640-649.
83. Gatbonton T., Imbesi M., Nelson M. et al. Telomere length as a quantitative trait: genome-wide survey and genetic mapping of telomere length-control genes in yeast. PLoS Genet. (2006) 2 e35.
84. Saldanha S.N., Andrews L.G., Tollefsbol T.O. Assessment of telomere length and factors that contribute to its stability. Eur. J. Biochem. (2003) 270 389-403.
85. Nawrot T.S., Staessen J.A., Gardner J.P., Aviv A. Telomere length and possible link to X chromosome. Lancet (2004) 363 507-510.
86. Nordfjäll K., Larefalk A., Lindgren P., Holmberg D., Roos G. Telomere length and heredity: Indications of paternal inheritance. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (2005) 102 16374-16378.
87. Benetos A., Okuda K., Lajemi M. et al. Telomere length as an indicator of biological aging: the gender effect and relation with pulse pressure and pulse wave velocity. Hypertension. (2001) 37 (2 Part 2): 381-385.
88. Lindsey J., McGill N.I., Lindsey L.A., Green D.K., Cooke H.J. In vivo loss of telomeric repeats with age in humans. Mutat. Res. (1991) 256 45-48.
89. Aviv A. Telomeres and human somatic fitness. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. (2006) 61 871-873.
90. von Zglinicki T., Martin-Ruiz C.M. Telomeres as biomarkers for ageing and age-related diseases. Curr. Mol. Med. (2005) 5 197-203.
91. Bischoff C., Petersen H.C., Graakjaer J. et al. No association between telomere length and survival among the elderly and oldest old. Epidemiology (2006) 17 190-194.
92. Martin-Ruiz C.M., Gussekloo J., van Heemst D., von Zglinicki T., Westendorp R.G. Telomere length in white blood cells is not associated with morbidity or mortality in the oldest old: a population-based study. Aging Cell (2005) 4 287-290.
93. Garcia C.K., Wright W.E., Shay J.W. Human diseases of telomerase dysfunction: insights into tissue aging. Nucleic Acids Res. (2007) 35 7406-7416.
94. Shay J.W., Wright W.E. Hallmarks of telomeres in ageing research. J. Pathol. (2007) 211 114-123.
95. Gilley D., Tanaka H., Herbert B.S. Telomere dysfunction in aging and cancer. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. (2005) 37 1000-1013.
96. Rudolph K.L., Chang S., Lee H.W. et al. Longevity, stress response, and cancer in aging telomerase-deficient mice. Cell (1999) 96 701-712.
97. Blasco M.A., Gasser S.M., Lingner J. Telomeres and telomerase. Genes Dev. (1999) 13 2353-2359.
98. Blasco M.A., Lee H.W., Hande M.P. et al. Telomere shortening and tumor formation by mouse cells lacking telomerase RNA. Cell (1997) 91 25-34. Comment in: Cell. (1997) 91: 1-3.
99. Blasco M.A., Lee H.W., Rizen M., Hanahan D., DePinho R., Greider C.W. Mouse models for the study of telomerase. Ciba Found. Symp. (1997) 211 160-170; discussion 70-76.
100. Blasco M.A. Telomeres and human disease: ageing, cancer and beyond. Nat. Rev. Genet. (2005) 6 611-622.
101. Greider C.W. Telomerase activity, cell proliferation, and cancer. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (1998) 95 90-92.
102. Mirabello L., Garcia-Closas M., Cawthon R. et al. Leukocyte telomere length in a population-based case-control study of ovarian cancer: a pilot study. Cancer Causes Control. (2010) 21 77-82.
103. Wu X., Amos C.I., Zhu Y. et al. Telomere dysfunction: a potential cancer predisposition factor. J. Natl Cancer Inst. (2003) 95 1211-1218. Comment in: J. Natl Cancer Inst. (2003) 95: 1184-1186.
104. Kogevinas M., Trichopoulos D. in: Urinary bladder cancer.In:.Adami.H.-O., Hunter D.J., Trichopoulos D. (Eds), Textbook of cancer epidemiology, Oxford University Press, New York, 2002, pp. 446-466.
105. Broberg K., Björk J., Paulsson K., Höglund M., Albin M. Constitutional short telomeres are strong genetic susceptibility markers for bladder cancer. Carcinogenesis (2005) 26 1263-1271.
106. McGrath M., Wong J.Y., Michaud D., Hunter D.J., De Vivo I. Telomere length, cigarette smoking, and bladder cancer risk in men and women. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. (2007) 16 815-819.
107. van der Vaart H., Postma D.S., Timens W., ten Hacken N.H. Acute effects of cigarette smoke on inflammation and oxidative stress: a review. Thorax (2004) 59 713-721.
108. Aviv A. Telomeres and human aging: facts and fibs. Sci. Aging Knowledge Environ. (2004) 51 pe43.
109. Brouilette S., Singh R.K., Thompson J.R., Goodall A.H., Samani N.J. White cell telomere length and risk of premature myocardial infarction. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (2003) 23 842-846.
110. Demissie S., Levy D., Benjamin E.J. et al. Insulin resistance, oxidative stress, hypertension, and leukocyte telomere length in men from the Framingham Heart Study. Aging Cell (2006) 5 325-330.
111. Samani N.J., Boultby R., Butler R., Thompson J.R., Goodall A.H. Telomere shortening in atherosclerosis. Lancet (2001) 358 472-473.
112. Valdes A.M., Andrew T., Gardner J.P. et al. Obesity, cigarette smoking, and telomere length in women. Lancet (2005) 366 662-664.
113. Aviv A., Valdes A., Gardner J.P., Swaminathan R., Kimura M., Spector T.D. Menopause modifies the association of leukocyte telomere length with insulin resistance and inflammation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. (2006) 91 635-640.
114. Gardner J.P., Li S., Srinivasan S.R. et al. Rise in insulin resistance is associated with escalated telomere attrition. Circulation (2005) 111 2171-2177.
115. von Zglinicki T., Serra V., Lorenz M. et al. Short telomeres in patients with vascular dementia: an indicator of low antioxidative capacity and a possible risk factor? Lab. Invest. (2000) 80 1739-1747.
116. Panossian L.A., Porter V.R., Valenzuela H.F. et al. Telomere shortening in T cells correlates with Alzheimer's disease status. Neurobiol. Aging (2003) 24 77-84.
117. Morlá M., Busquets X., Pons J., Sauleda J., MacNee W., Agustí A.G. Telomere shortening in smokers with and without COPD. Eur. Respir. J. (2006) 27 525-528.
118. Mayer S., Brüderlein S., Perner S. et al. Sex-specific telomere length profiles and age-dependent erosion dynamics of individual chromosome arms in humans. Cytogenet. Genome Res. (2006) 112 194-201.
119. Okuda K., Bardeguez A., Gardner J.P. et al. Telomere length in the newborn. Pediatr. Res. (2002) 52 377-381.
120. Epel E.S., Blackburn E.H., Lin J. et al. Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (2004) 101 17312-17315. Comment in: Int J Palliat Nurs. (2009) 15 55. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (2004) 101: 17323-17324.
121. Toussaint O., Medrano E.E., von Zglinicki T. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of stress-induced premature senescence (SIPS) of human diploid fibroblasts and melanocytes. Exp. Gerontol. (2000) 35 927-945.
122. American Cancer Society. 12th World Conference on Tobacco or Health. Tobacco Control Profiles; American Cancer Society, Atlanta. 2003.
123. Global Youth Tobacco Survey Collaborating Group. Differences in worldwide tobacco use by gender: findings from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey. J. Sch. Health (2003) 73 207-215.
124. Hegedius L., Brix T.H., Vestergaard P. Relationship between cigarette smoking and Graves' ophthalmopathy. J. Endocrinol. Invest. (2004) 27 265-271.
125. Klareskog L., Stolt P., Lundberg K. et al. A new model for an etiology of rheumatoid arthritis: smoking may trigger HLA-DR (shared epitope)-restricted immune reactions to autoantigens modified by citrullination. Arthritis Rheum. (2006) 54 38-46.
126. Warren C.W., Jones N.R., Eriksen M.P., Asma S. Global Tobacco Surveillance System (GTSS) collaborative group: patterns of global tobacco use in young people and implications for future chronic disease burden in adults. Lancet (2006) 367 749-753.
127. American Cancer Society. Cancer facts and figures. American Cancer Society, Atlanta, 2007.
128. Koch M., van Harten.A., Uyttenboogaart M., de Keyser J. Cigarette smoking and progression in multiple sclerosis. Neurology (2007) 69 1515-1520.
129. Hawkes C.H. Smoking is a risk factor for multiple sclerosis: a metaanalysis. Mult. Scler. (2007) 13 610-615.
130. Parker-Pope T. Cigarettes: Anatomy of an Industry From Seed to Smoke.
131. Babizhayev M.A., Seguin M.-C. Coupling product obtained from histamine and an amino acid. US Patent 5, 792, 784. Date of Patent Aug. 11, 1998.
132. Babizhayev M.A., Vishnyakova K.S., Yegorov Y.E. Telomere-dependent senescent phenotype of lens epithelial cells as a biological marker of aging and cataractogenesis: the role of oxidative stress intensity and specific mechanism of phospholipid hydroperoxide toxicity in lens and aqueous. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. (2010) [Epub ahead of print].
133. Babizhayev M.A., Micans P., Guiotto A., Kasus-Jacobi A. N-acetylcarnosine lubricant eyedrops possess all-in-one universal antioxidant protective effects of L-carnosine in aqueous and lipid membrane environments, aldehyde scavenging, and transglycation activities inherent to cataracts: a clinical study of the new vision-saving drug N-acetylcarnosine eyedrop therapy in a database population of over 50, 500 patients. Am. J. Ther. (2009) 16 517-533.
134. Shao L., Li Q.H., Tan Z. L-carnosine reduces telomere damage and shortening rate in cultured normal fibroblasts. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. (2004) 324 931-936.