The neurobiological basis of seeing words

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1224, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 63-80

  Wandell, Brian A ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

DTI; FMRI; Reading; Retinotopy; Visual field maps; Visual word form area

Indexed keywords

COGNITION; DIFFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROIMAGING; OCCIPITAL CORTEX; READING; REVIEW; TEMPORAL CORTEX; TRACTOGRAPHY; VISION; VISUAL CORTEX; VISUAL FIELD;

EID: 79954529945     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05954.x     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. Just, M.A. & P.A. Carpenter. 1987. The Psychology of Reading and Language Comprehension. Allyn and Bacon Newton, MA.
2. Wernicke, C. 1874. Der aphasischer Symptomenkomplex: eine psychologische Studie auf anatomischer Basis. In Wernicke's Works on Aphasia: A Sourcebook and Review. T.b.G.H. Eggert, Ed.: 91-145. Mouton. The Hague.
3. Wernicke, C. 1906. Der aphasischer Symptomenkomplex. Die deutsche Klinik am Eingdnge des 20 Jahrhunderts. In Wernicke's Works on Aphasia: A Sourcebook and Review, Vol. 6, 487 p. Mouton. The Hague.
4. Cohen, L. et al. 2000. The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients. Brain 123: 291-307.
5. Cohen, L. et al. 2002. Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the Visual Word Form Area. Brain 125: 1054-1069.
6. Dehaene, S. et al. 2005. The neural code for written words: a proposal. Trends Cogn. Sci. 9: 335-341.
7. Haxby, J.V. et al. 2001. Distributed and overlapping representations of faces and objects in ventral temporal cortex. Science 293: 2425-2430.
8. Haxby, J.V. et al. 1994. The functional organization of human extrastriate cortex: a PET-rCBF study of selective attention to faces and locations. J. Neurosci. 14: 6336-6353.
9. Ungerleider, L.G. & J.V. Haxby. 1994. 'What' and 'where' in the human brain. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 4: 157-165.
10. Kanwisher, N. 2001. Faces and places: of central (and peripheral) interest. Nat. Neurosci. 4: 455-456.
11. Gauthier, I. et al. 2000. Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition. Nat. Neurosci. 3: 191-197.
12. Grill-Spector, K. et al. 2000. The dynamics of object-selective activation correlate with recognition performance in humans. Nat. Neurosci. 3: 837-843.
13. Gross, C.G. 1992. Representation of visual stimuli in inferior temporal cortex. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 335: 3-10.
14. Logothetis, N.K. et al. 1994. View-dependent object recognition by monkeys. Curr. Biol. 4: 401-414.
15. DiCarlo, J.J. & D.D. Cox. 2007. Untangling invariant object recognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 11: 333-341.
16. Xue, G. & R.A. Poldrack. 2007. The neural substrates of visual perceptual learning of words: implications for the visual word form area hypothesis. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 19: 1643-1655.
17. Dehaene, S. et al. 2010. How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language. Science 330: 1359-1364.
18. Meadows, J. 1974. Disturbed perception of colours associated with localized cerebral lesions. Brain 97: 615-632.
19. Meadows, J.C. 1974. The anatomical basis of prosopagnosia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 37: 489-501.
20. Wandell, B.A., S.O. Dumoulin & A.A. Brewer. 2007. Visual field maps in human cortex. Neuron 56: 366-383.
21. Wandell, B.A. & J. Winawer. 2010. Imaging retinotopic maps in the human brain. Vision Res. Aug. 6. epub ahead of print. doi.
22. Petersen, S.E. et al. 1990. Activation of extrastriate and frontal cortical areas by visual words and word-like stimuli. Science 249: 1041-1044.
23. Vinckier, F. et al. 2006. "What" and "where" in word reading: ventral coding of written words revealed by parietal atrophy. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18: 1998-2012.
24. Dumoulin, S.O. & B.A. Wandell. 2008. Population receptive field estimates in human visual cortex. Neuroimage 39: 647-660.
25. Kinsbourne, M. & E.K. Warrington. 1963. The localizing significance of limited simultaneous visual form perception. Brain 86: 697-702.
26. Chakeres, D.W. & F. de Vocht. 2005. Static magnetic field effects on human subjects related to magnetic resonance imaging systems. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 87: 255-265.
27. Conturo, T.E. et al. 1999. Tracking neuronal fiber pathways in the living human brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96: 10422-10427.
28. Mori, S. et al. 1999. Three-dimensional tracking of axonal projections in the brain by magnetic resonance imaging. Ann. Neurol. 45: 265-269.
29. Basser, P.J. et al. 2000. In vivo fiber tractography using DT-MRI data. Magn. Reson. Med. 44: 625-632.
30. Dehaene, S. & L. Cohen. 2007. Cultural recycling of cortical maps. Neuron 56: 384-398.
31. Field, G.D. & E.J. Chichilnisky. 2007. Information processing in the primate retina: circuitry and coding. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 30: 1-30.
32. Wandell, B.A. 1995. Foundations of Vision. Sinauer Press. Sunderland, MA.
33. Rodieck, R.W. 1998. The First Steps in Seeing. Sinauer Press. Sunderland, MA.
34. Dacey, D.M. 2000. Parallel pathways for spectral coding in primate retina. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 23: 743-775.
35. Berson, D.M., F.A. Dunn & M. Takao. 2002. Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that set the circadian clock. Science 295: 1070-1073.
36. Hattar, S. et al. 2002. Melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells: architecture, projections, and intrinsic photosensitivity. Science 295: 1065-1070.
37. Dacey, D.M. et al. 2005. Melanopsin-expressing ganglion cells in primate retina signal colour and irradiance and project to the LGN. Nature 433: 749-754.
38. Zeki, S. 1993. A Vision of the Brain. Blackwell Scientific Publications. London.
39. Nassi, J.J. & E.M. Callaway. 2009. Parallel processing strategies of the primate visual system. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10: 360-372.
40. Angelucci, A. & P.C. Bressloff. 2006. Contribution of feedforward, lateral and feedback connections to the classical receptive field center and extra-classical receptive field surround of primate V1 neurons. Prog. Brain Res. 154: 93-120.
41. Felleman, D.J. & D.C.V. Essen. 1991. Distributed hierarchical processing in the primate cerebral cortex. Cerebral Cortex. 1: 1-47.
42. Ungerleider, L.G. & M. Mishkin. 1982. Two cortical visual systems. In The Analysis of Visual Behavior. D. J. Ingle, R.J.W. Mansfield & M.S. Goodale, Eds.: 549-586. Cambridge, MA. MIT Press.
43. Goodale, M.A. & A.D. Milner. 1992. Separate visual pathways for perception and action. Trends Neurosci. 15: 20-25.
44. Brewer, A.A. et al. 2005. Visual field maps and stimulus selectivity in human ventral occipital cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 8: 1102-1109.
45. Silver, M.A. & S. Kastner. 2009. Topographic maps in human frontal and parietal cortex. Trends Cogn. Sci. 13: 488-495.
46. Kolster, H. et al. 2009. Visual field map clusters in macaque extrastriate visual cortex. J. Neurosci. 29: 7031-7039.
47. Dejerine, J. 1891. Sur un cas de cecite verbale avec agraphie, suivi d'autopsie. Mémoires de la Société Biologique. 3: 197-201.
48. Damasio, A.R. & H. Damasio. 1983. The anatomic basis of pure alexia. Neurology 33: 1573-1583.
49. Warrington, E.K. & T. Shallice. 1980. Word-form dyslexia. Brain 103: 99-112.
50. Wolpert, I. 1924. Die Simultagnosie: Störung der Gesamtauffassung. Zeitschrift für Gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie. 93: 397-415.
51. Damasio, A. et al. 1980. Central achromatopsia: behavioral, anatomic, and physiologic aspects. Neurology 30: 1064-1071.
52. Zeki, S. 1990. A century of cerebral achromatopsia. Brain 113: 1721-1777.
53. Petersen, S.E. et al. 1989. Positron emission tomographic studies of the processing of singe words. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 1: 153-170.
54. Posner, M.I. et al. 1988. Localization of cognitive operations in the human brain. Science 240: 1627-1631.
55. Petersen, S. et al. 1988. Positron emission tomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single-word processing. Nature 331: 585-589.
56. Fiez, J.A. & S.E. Petersen. 1998. Neuroimaging studies of word reading. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 914-921.
57. Howard, D. et al. 1992. The cortical localization of the lexicons. Positron emission tomography evidence. Brain 115: 1769-1782.
58. Price, C.J. et al. 1994. Brain activity during reading. The effects of exposure duration and task. Brain 117: 1255-1269.
59. Demonet, J.F. et al. 1992. The anatomy of phonological and semantic processing in normal subjects. Brain 115: 1753-1768.
60. Demonet, J.F., R. Wise & R.S.J. Frackowiak. 1993. Language functions explored in normal subjects by positron emission tomography: a critical review. Hum. Brain Mapp. 1: 39-47
61. Price, C.J. et al. 1996. Hearing and saying. The functional neuro-anatomy of auditory word processing. Brain 119: 919-931.
62. Nobre, A.C., T. Allison & G. McCarthy. 1994. Word recognition in the human inferior temporal lobe. Nature 372: 260-263.
63. Rumsey, J.M. et al. 1997. A positron emission tomographic study of impaired word recognition and phonological processing in dyslexic men. Arch. Neurol. 54: 562-573.
64. Brunswick, N. et al. 1999. Explicit and implicit processing of words and pseudowords by adult developmental dyslexics: a search for Wernicke's Wortschatz? Brain 122: 1901-1917.
65. Paulesu, E. et al. 2001. Dyslexia: cultural diversity and biological unity. Science 291: 2165-2167.
66. Temple, E. 2002. Brain mechanisms in normal and dyslexic readers. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 12: 178-183.
67. Price, C.J. & J.T. Devlin. 2003. The myth of the visual word form area. Neuroimage 19: 473-481.
68. Gaillard, R. et al. 2006. Direct intracranial, FMRI, and lesion evidence for the causal role of left inferotemporal cortex in reading. Neuron 50: 191-204.
69. Engel, S.A., G.H. Glover & B.A. Wandell. 1997. Retinotopic organization in human visual cortex and the spatial precision of functional MRI. Cereb. Cortex 7: 181-192.
70. Engel, S.A. et al. 1994. fMRI of human visual cortex. Nature 369: 525.
71. Sereno, M.I. et al. 1995. Borders of multiple human visual areas in humans revealed by functional MRI. Science 268: 889-893.
72. DeYoe, E.A. et al. 1994. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) of the human brain. J. Neurosci. Methods 54: 171-187.
73. Hadjikhani, N. et al. 1998. Retinotopy and color sensitivity in human visual cortical area V8. Nat. Neurosci. 1: 235-241.
74. Tootell, R.B. & N. Hadjikhani. 2001. Where is 'dorsal V4' in human visual cortex? Retinotopic, topographic and functional evidence. Cereb. Cortex 11: 298-311.
75. Zeki, S. et al. 1998. Has a new color area been discovered? Nat. Neurosci. 1: 335-336.
76. Ben-Shachar, M., R.F. Dougherty & B.A. Wandell. 2007. White matter pathways in reading. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 17: 258-270.
77. Winawer, J. et al. 2010. Mapping hV4 and ventral occipital cortex: the venous eclipse. J. Vis. 10(5): 1-22. doi:.
78. Binder, J.R. et al. 1992. Left hemiparalexia. Neurology 42: 562-569.
79. Dougherty, R.F. et al. 2005. Functional organization of human occipital-callosal fiber tracts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102: 7350-7355.
80. Saenz, M. & I. Fine. 2010. Topographic organization of V1 projections through the corpus callosum in humans. Neuroimage 52: 1224-1229.
81. Dumoulin, S.O. et al. 2000. A new anatomical landmark for reliable identification of human area V5/MT: a quantitative analysis of sulcal patterning. Cereb. Cortex 10: 454-463.
82. Tootell, R.B. et al. 1995. Functional analysis of human MT and related visual cortical areas using magnetic resonance imaging. J. Neurosci. 15: 3215-3230.
83. Amano, K., B.A. Wandell & S.O. Dumoulin. 2009. Visual field maps, population receptive field sizes, and visual field coverage in the human MT+ complex. J. Neurophysiol. 102: 2704-2718.
84. Kolster, H., R. Peeters & G.A. Orban. 2010. The retinotopic organization of the human middle temporal area MT/V5 and its cortical neighbors. J. Neurosci. 30: 9801-9820.
85. Siok, W.T. et al. 2004. Biological abnormality of impaired reading is constrained by culture. Nature 431: 71-76.
86. McCandliss, B.D., L. Cohen & S. Dehaene. 2003. The visual word form area: expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus. Trends Cogn. Sci. 7: 293-299.
87. Binder, J.R. et al. 2006. Tuning of the human left fusiform gyrus to sublexical orthographic structure. Neuroimage 33: 739-748.
88. Kronbichler, M. et al. 2004. The visual word form area and the frequency with which words are encountered: evidence from a parametric fMRI study. Neuroimage 21: 946-953.
89. Mechelli, A., M.L. Gorno-Tempini & C.J. Price. 2003. Neuroimaging studies of word and pseudoword reading: consistencies, inconsistencies, and limitations. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 15: 260-271.
90. Baker, C.I. et al. 2007. Visual word processing and experiential origins of functional selectivity in human extrastriate cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104: 9087-9092.
91. Ben-Shachar, M. et al. 2006. Differential sensitivity to words and shapes in ventral occipito-temporal cortex. Cereb. Cortex 17(7): 1604-1611.
92. Dehaene, S. et al. 2001. Cerebral mechanisms of word masking and unconscious repetition priming. Nat. Neurosci. 4: 752-758.
93. Dehaene, S. et al. 2004. Letter binding and invariant recognition of masked words: behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. Psychol. Sci. 15: 307-313.
94. Glezer, L.S., X. Jiang & M. Riesenhuber. 2009. Evidence for highly selective neuronal tuning to whole words in the "visual word form area". Neuron 62: 199-204.
95. Liu, C. et al. 2008. The Visual Word Form Area: evidence from an fMRI study of implicit processing of Chinese characters. Neuroimage 40: 1350-1361.
96. Gauthier, I. & M.J. Tarr. 1997. Becoming a "Greeble" expert: exploring mechanisms for face recognition. Vision Res. 37: 1673-1682.
97. Tarr, M.J. & I. Gauthier. 2000. FFA: a flexible fusiform area for subordinate-level visual processing automatized by expertise. Nat. Neurosci. 3: 764-769.
98. Kronbichler, M. et al. 2007. Taxi vs. Taksi: on orthographic word recognition in the left ventral occipitotemporal cortex. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 19: 1584-1594.
99. Bruno, J.L. et al. 2008. Sensitivity to orthographic familiarity in the occipito-temporal region. Neuroimage 39: 1988-2001.
100. Mei, L. et al. 2010. The "visual word form area" is involved in successful memory encoding of both words and faces. Neuroimage 52: 371-378.
101. Devlin, J.T. et al. 2006. The role of the posterior fusiform gyrus in reading. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18: 911-922.
102. Cai, Q. et al. 2008. Cerebral lateralization of frontal lobe language processes and lateralization of the posterior visual word processing system. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 20: 672-681.
103. Olshausen, B.A. & D.J. Field. 1996. Natural image statistics and efficient coding. Network 7: 333-339.
104. Deng, W. et al. 2009. Simultaneous z-shim method for reducing susceptibility artifacts with multiple transmitters. Magn. Reson. Med. 61: 255-259.
105. Lee, J.H. et al. 2008. Full-brain coverage and high-resolution imaging capabilities of passband b-SSFP fMRI at 3T. Magn. Reson. Med. 59: 1099-1110.
106. Lovegrove, W.J. et al. 1980. Specific reading-disability: differences in contrast sensitivity as a function of spatial-frequency. Science 210: 439-440.
107. Stein, J. 2001. The magnocellular theory of developmental dyslexia. Dyslexia 7: 12-36.
108. Talcott, J.B. et al. 2000. Visual motion sensitivity in dyslexia: evidence for temporal and energy integration deficits. Neuropsychologia 38: 935-943.
109. Talcott, J.B. et al. 2002. On the relationship between dynamic visual and auditory processing and literacy skills: results from a large primary-school study. Dyslexia 8: 204-225.
110. Livingstone, M.S. et al. 1991. Physiological and anatomical evidence for a magnocellular defect in developmental dyslexia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88: 7943-7947.
111. Eden, G.F. et al. 1996. Abnormal processing of visual motion in dyslexia revealed by functional brain imaging. Nature 382: 66-69.
112. Demb, J.B., G.M. Boynton & D.J. Heeger. 1997. Brain activity in visual cortex predicts individual differences in reading performance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 13363-13366.
113. Ben-Shachar, M. et al. 2007. Contrast responsivity in MT+ correlates with phonological awareness and reading measures in children. Neuroimage 37: 1396-1406.
114. Komatsu, H. & R.H. Wurtz. 1988. Relation of cortical areas MT and MST to pursuit eye movements. I. Localization and visual properties of neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 60: 580-603.
115. Komatsu, H. & R.H. Wurtz. 1988. Relation of cortical areas MT and MST to pursuit eye movements. III. Interaction with full-field visual stimulation. J. Neurophysiol. 60: 621-644.
116. Newsome, W.T., R.H. Wurtz & H. Komatsu. 1988. Relation of cortical areas MT and MST to pursuit eye movements. II. Differentiation of retinal from extraretinal inputs. J. Neurophysiol. 60: 604-620.
117. Tootell, R.B. et al. 1998. The retinotopy of visual spatial attention. Neuron 21: 1409-1422.
118. O'Craven, K.M. et al. 1997. Voluntary attention modulates fMRI activity in human MT-MST. Neuron 18: 591-598.
119. Rosa, M.G. & R. Tweedale. 2005. Brain maps, great and small: lessons from comparative studies of primate visual cortical organization. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 360: 665-691.
120. Sperling, A.J. et al. 2005. Deficits in perceptual noise exclusion in developmental dyslexia. Nat. Neurosci. 8: 862-863.
121. Sperling, A.J. et al. 2006. Motion-perception deficits and reading impairment: it's the noise, not the motion. Psychol. Sci. 17: 1047-1053.
122. Vidyasagar, T.R. & K. Pammer. 2010. Dyslexia: a deficit in visuo-spatial attention, not in phonological processing. Trends Cogn. Sci. 14: 57-63.
123. Geschwind, N. 1965. Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man. II. Brain. 88: 585-644.
124. Geschwind, N. 1965. Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man. I. Brain. 88: 237-294.
125. Kolb, B. & I.Q. Whishaw. 2009. Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Worth Publishers. New York, NY.
126. Mori, S. & P.C. van Zijl. 2002. Fiber tracking: principles and strategies, a technical review. NMR Biomed. 15: 468-480.
127. Bub, D.N., M. Arguin & A.R. Lecours. 1993. Jules Dejerine and his interpretation of pure alexia. Brain Lang. 45: 531-559.
128. Dejerine, J. 1895. Anatomie des Centres Nerveux. Rueff. Paris.
129. Epelbaum, S. et al. 2008. Pure alexia as a disconnection syndrome: new diffusion imaging evidence for an old concept. Cortex 44: 962-974.
130. Catani, M. et al. 2003. Occipito-temporal connections in the human brain. Brain 126: 2093-2107.
131. Tusa, R.J. & L.G. Ungerleider. 1985. The inferior longitudinal fasciculus: a reexamination in humans and monkeys. Ann. Neurol. 18: 583-591.
132. Molko, N. et al. 2002. Visualizing the neural bases of a disconnection syndrome with diffusion tensor imaging. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 14: 629-636.
133. Dougherty, R.F. et al. 2007. Temporal-callosal pathway diffusivity predicts phonological skills in children. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104: 8556-8561.
134. Frye, R.E. et al. 2008. Splenium microstructure is related to two dimensions of reading skill. Neuroreport 19: 1627-1631.
135. Odegard, T.N. et al. 2009. Brain connectivity in non-reading impaired children and children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia. Neuropsychologia 47: 1972-1977.
136. Gabrieli, J.D. 2009. Dyslexia: a new synergy between education and cognitive neuroscience. Science 325: 280-283.
137. Hubel, D.H. & T.N. Wiesel. 1963. Receptive fields of cells in striate cortex of very young, visually inexperienced kittens. J. Neurophysiol. 26: 994-1002.
138. Wiesel, T.N. & D.H. Hubel. 1963. Single-cell responses in striate cortex of kittens deprived of vision in one eye. J. Neurophysiol. 26: 1003-1017.
139. Wandell, B.A. & S.M. Smirnakis. 2009. Plasticity and stability of visual field maps in adult primary visual cortex. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10: 873-884.
140. Dehaene, S. 2009. Reading in the Brain: The Science and Evolution of a Human Invention. Viking. New York.
141. Logothetis, N.K., J. Pauls & T. Poggio. 1995. Shape representation in the inferior temporal cortex of monkeys. Curr. Biol. 5: 552-563.
142. Demb, J.B., G.M. Boynton & D.J. Heeger. 1998. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of early visual pathways in dyslexia. J. Neurosci. 18: 6939-6951.
143. Stein, J. 2003. Visual motion sensitivity and reading. Neuropsychologia 41: 1785-1793.
144. Brem, S. et al. 2010. Brain sensitivity to print emerges when children learn letter-speech sound correspondences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107: 7939-7944.
145. Brem, S. et al. 2006. Evidence for developmental changes in the visual word processing network beyond adolescence. Neuroimage 29: 822-837.
146. Brem, S. et al. 2009. Tuning of the visual word processing system: distinct developmental ERP and fMRI effects. Hum. Brain. Mapp. 30: 1833-1844.
147. Brem, S. et al. 2005. Neurophysiological signs of rapidly emerging visual expertise for symbol strings. Neuroreport 16: 45-48.
148. Pugh, K.R. et al. 2000. Functional neuroimaging studies of reading and reading disability (developmental dyslexia). Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev. 6: 207-213.
149. Shaywitz, B.A. et al. 2002. Disruption of posterior brain systems for reading in children with developmental dyslexia. Biol. Psychiatry 52: 101-110.
150. Shaywitz, S.E. et al. 2003. Neural systems for compensation and persistence: young adult outcome of childhood reading disability. Biol. Psychiatry 54: 25-33.
151. Shaywitz, S.E. et al. 1998. Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 2636-2641.
152. Booth, J.R. et al. 2001. The development of specialized brain systems in reading and oral-language. Child Neuropsychol. 7: 119-141.
153. Booth, J.R. et al. 2007. Children with reading disorder show modality independent brain abnormalities during semantic tasks. Neuropsychologia 45: 775-783.
154. Booth, J.R. et al. 2004. Development of brain mechanisms for processing orthographic and phonologic representations. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 16: 1234-1249.
155. Shaywitz, S.E. & B.A. Shaywitz. 2008. Paying attention to reading: the neurobiology of reading and dyslexia. Dev. Psychopathol. 20: 1329-1349.
156. Eden, G.F. & L. Moats. 2002. The role of neuroscience in the remediation of students with dyslexia. Nat Neurosci. 5: 1080-1084.
157. Sowell, E.R. et al. 2004. Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and brain growth in normal children. J. Neurosci. 24: 8223-8231.
158. Sowell, E.R., P.M. Thompson & A.W. Toga. 2004. Mapping changes in the human cortex throughout the span of life. Neuroscientist 10: 372-392.
159. Lebel, C., S. Caverhill-Godkewitsch & C. Beaulieu. 2010. Age-related regional variations of the corpus callosum identified by diffusion tensor tractography. Neuroimage 52: 20-31.
160. Lebel, C. et al. 2008. Microstructural maturation of the human brain from childhood to adulthood. Neuroimage 40: 1044-1055.
161. Deutsch, G.K. et al. 2005. Children's reading performance is correlated with white matter structure measured by diffusion tensor imaging. Cortex 41: 354-363.
162. Beaulieu, C. et al. 2005. Imaging brain connectivity in children with diverse reading ability. Neuroimage 25: 1266-1271.
163. Keller, T.A. & M.A. Just. 2009. Altering cortical connectivity: remediation-induced changes in the white matter of poor readers. Neuron 64: 624-631.
164. Carreiras, M. et al. 2009. An anatomical signature for literacy. Nature 461: 983-986.