Plasticity and stability of visual field maps in adult primary visual cortex

Nature Reviews Neuroscience

Volumn 10, Issue 12, 2009, Pages 873-884

  Wandell, Brian A ^a   Smirnakis, Stelios M ^b  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; ADULT; AMBLYOPIA; BINOCULAR VISION; BLINDNESS; BRAIN; EYE; EYE DOMINANCE; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NONHUMAN; PHOTORECEPTOR; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECEPTIVE FIELD; RETINA DISEASE; RETINA FOVEA; RETINA MACULA LUTEA; REVIEW; VISUAL ACUITY; VISUAL CORTEX; VISUAL FIELD; VISUAL NERVOUS SYSTEM;

ADULT; ANIMALS; BRAIN MAPPING; HUMANS; NEURONAL PLASTICITY; PHOTIC STIMULATION; VISION, BINOCULAR; VISION, MONOCULAR; VISUAL CORTEX; VISUAL FIELDS;

EID: 70450239641     PISSN: 1471003X     EISSN: 14710048     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrn2741     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Gregory, R. L. Concepts and Mechanisms of Perception (Gerald Duckworth, London, 1974).
2. Krageloh-Mann, I. Imaging of early brain injury and cortical plasticity. Exp. Neurol. 190 (Suppl. 1), 84-90 (2004).
3. Pollak, S. D. Early adversity and mechanisms of plasticity: integrating affective neuroscience with developmental approaches to psychopathology. Dev. Psychopathol. 17, 735-752 (2005).
4. Cicchetti, D. & Manly, J. T. Operationalizing child maltreatment: developmental processes and outcomes. Dev. Psychopathol. 13, 755-757 (2001).
5. Baylor, D. A. Photoreceptor signals and vision. Proctor lecture. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 28, 34-49 (1987).
6. Dunn, F. A., Lankheet, M. J. & Rieke, F. Light adaptation in cone vision involves switching between receptor and post-receptor sites. Nature 449, 603-606 (2007).
7. Rushton, W. A. H. Visual adaptation. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 16, 20-46 (1965).
8. Wade, A. R. & Wandell, B. A. Chromatic light adaptation measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging. J. Neurosci. 22, 8148-8157 (2002).
9. Lisberger, S. G., Miles, F. A. & Optican, L. M. Frequency-selective adaptation: evidence for channels in the vestibulo-ocular reflex? J. Neurosci. 3, 1234-1244 (1983).
10. Optican, L. M. & Miles, F. A. Visually induced adaptive changes in primate saccadic oculomotor control signals. J. Neurophysiol. 54, 940-958 (1985).
11. Gonshor, A. & Jones, G. M. Extreme vestibulo-ocular adaptation induced by prolonged optical reversal of vision. J. Physiol. 256, 381-414 (1976).
12. Gonshor, A. & Jones, G. M. Short-term adaptive changes in the human vestibulo-ocular reflex arc. J. Physiol. 256, 361-379 (1976).
13. Jones, G. M. Plasticity in the adult vestibulo-ocular reflex arc. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 278, 319-334 (1977).
14. Dodge, R. Habituation to rotation. J. Exp. Psychol. 6, 1-35 (1923).
15. Grados-Munro, E. M. & Fournier, A. E. Myelin-associated inhibitors of axon regeneration. J. Neurosci. Res. 74, 479-485 (2003).
16. Kastin, A. J. & Pan, W. Targeting neurite growth inhibitors to induce CNS regeneration. Curr. Pharm. Des. 11, 1247-1253 (2005).
17. Syken, J., Grandpre, T., Kanold, P. O. & Shatz, C. J. PirB restricts ocular-dominance plasticity in visual cortex. Science 313, 1795-1800 (2006).
18. Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. Receptive fields of cells in striate cortex of very young, visually inexperienced kittens. J. Neurophysiol. 26, 994-1002 (1963).
19. Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. Ferrier lecture. Functional architecture of macaque monkey visual cortex. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 198, 1-59 (1977).
20. Wiesel, T. N. & Hubel, D. H. Single-cell responses in striate cortex of kittens deprived of vision in one eye. J. Neurophysiol. 26, 1003-1017 (1963).
21. Adams, D. L. & Horton, J. C. Shadows cast by retinal blood vessels mapped in primary visual cortex. Science 298, 572-576 (2002).
22. Adams, D. L. & Horton, J. C. The representation of retinal blood vessels in primate striate cortex. J. Neurosci. 23, 5984-5997 (2003).
23. Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. The period of susceptibility to the physiological effects of unilateral eye closure in kittens. J. Physiol. 206, 419-436 (1970).
24. Muckli, L., Naumer, M. J. & Singer, W. Bilateral visual field maps in a patient with only one hemisphere. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 13034-13039 (2009).
25. Werth, R. Visual functions without the occipital lobe or after cerebral hemispherectomy in infancy. Eur. J. Neurosci. 24, 2932-2944 (2006).
26. Holloway, V. et al. The reorganization of sensorimotor function in children after hemispherectomy. A functional MRI and somatosensory evoked potential study. Brain 123, 2432-2444 (2000).
27. Adams, D. L., Sincich, L. C. & Horton, J. C. Complete pattern of ocular dominance columns in human primary visual cortex. J. Neurosci. 27, 10391-10403 (2007).
28. Pizzorusso, T. et al. Reactivation of ocular dominance plasticity in the adult visual cortex. Science 298, 1248-1251 (2002).
29. Atwal, J. K. et al. PirB is a functional receptor for myelin inhibitors of axonal regeneration. Science 322, 967-970 (2008).
30. McGee, A. W., Yang, Y., Fischer, Q. S., Daw, N. W. & Strittmatter, S. M. Experience-driven plasticity of visual cortex limited by myelin and Nogo receptor. Science 309, 2222-2226 (2005).
31. Hensch, T. K. Critical period plasticity in local cortical circuits. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 6, 877-888 (2005).
32. Hensch, T. K. et al. Local GABA circuit control of experience-dependent plasticity in developing visual cortex. Science 282, 1504-1508 (1998).
33. Cynader, M. & Mitchell, D. E. Prolonged sensitivity to monocular deprivation in dark-reared cats. J. Neurophysiol. 43, 1026-1040 (1980).
34. Cynader, M., Timney, B. N. & Mitchell, D. E. Period of susceptibility of kitten visual cortex to the effects of monocular deprivation extends beyond six months of age. Brain Res. 191, 545-550 (1980).
35. Mower, G. D., Caplan, C. J., Christen, W. G. & Duffy, F. H. Dark rearing prolongs physiological but not anatomical plasticity of the cat visual cortex. J. Comp. Neurol. 235, 448-466 (1985).
36. Timney, B., Mitchell, D. E. & Cynader, M. Behavioral evidence for prolonged sensitivity to effects of monocular deprivation in dark-reared cats. J. Neurophysiol. 43, 1041-1054 (1980).
37. He, H. Y., Hodos, W. & Quinlan, E. M. Visual deprivation reactivates rapid ocular dominance plasticity in adult visual cortex. J. Neurosci. 26, 2951-2955 (2006).
38. He, H. Y., Ray, B., Dennis, K. & Quinlan, E. M. Experience-dependent recovery of vision following chronic deprivation amblyopia. Nature Neurosci. 10, 1134-1136 (2007).
39. Linkenhoker, B. A. & Knudsen, E. I. Incremental training increases the plasticity of the auditory space map in adult barn owls. Nature 419, 293-296 (2002).
40. Linkenhoker, B. A., von der Ohe, C. G. & Knudsen, E. I. Anatomical traces of juvenile learning in the auditory system of adult barn owls. Nature Neurosci. 8, 93-98 (2005).
41. Hofer, S. B., Mrsic-Flogel, T. D., Bonhoeffer, T. & Hubener, M. Prior experience enhances plasticity in adult visual cortex. Nature Neurosci. 9, 127-132 (2006).
42. Gilbert, C. D. & Wiesel, T. N. Morphology and intracortical projections of functionally characterised neurones in the cat visual cortex. Nature 280, 120-125 (1979).
43. Lund, J. S. Anatomical organization of macaque monkey striate visual cortex. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 11, 253-288 (1988).
44. Angelucci, A., Levitt, J. B. & Lund, J. S. Anatomical origins of the classical receptive field and modulatory surround field of single neurons in macaque visual cortical area V1. Prog. Brain Res. 136, 373-388 (2002).
45. Angelucci, A. et al. Circuits for local and global signal integration in primary visual cortex. J. Neurosci. 22, 8633-8646 (2002).
46. Sherman, S. M. & Guillery, R. W. Exploring the Thalamus (Academic, New York, 2000).
47. Kaas, J. H. & Lyon, D. C. Pulvinar contributions to the dorsal and ventral streams of visual processing in primates. Brain Res. Rev. 55, 285-296 (2007).
48. Rezak, M. & Benevento, L. A. A comparison of the organization of the projections of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, the inferior pulvinar and adjacent lateral pulvinar to primary visual cortex (area 17) in the macaque monkey. Brain Res. 167, 19-40 (1979).
49. Nicolelis, M. A. et al. Chronic, multisite, multielectrode recordings in macaque monkeys. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 11041-11046 (2003).
50. Ohki, K., Chung, S., Ch'ng, Y. H., Kara, P. & Reid, R. C. Functional imaging with cellular resolution reveals precise micro-architecture in visual cortex. Nature 433, 597-603 (2005).
51. Tolias, A. S. et al. Recording chronically from the same neurons in awake, behaving primates. J. Neurophysiol. 98, 3780-3790 (2007).
52. Stosiek, C., Garaschuk, O., Holthoff, K. & Konnerth, A. In vivo two-photon calcium imaging of neuronal networks. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 7319-7324 (2003).
53. Hatsopoulos, N., Mukand, J., Polykoff, G., Friehs, G. & Donoghue, J. Cortically controlled brain-machine interface. Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc. 7, 7660-7663 (2005).
54. Chestek, C. A. et al. HermesC: low-power wireless neural recording system for freely moving primates. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 17, 330-338 (2009).
55. Kaas, J. H. et al. Reorganization of retinotopic cortical maps in adult mammals after lesions of the retina. Science 248, 229-231 (1990).
56. Heinen, S. J. & Skavenski, A. A. Recovery of visual responses in foveal V1 neurons following bilateral foveal lesions in adult monkey. Exp. Brain Res. 83, 670-674 (1991).
57. Horton, J. C. & Hocking, D. R. Monocular core zones and binocular border strips in primate striate cortex revealed by the contrasting effects of enucleation, eyelid suture, and retinal laser lesions on cytochrome oxidase activity. J. Neurosci. 18, 5433-5455 (1998).
58. Gilbert, C. D. & Wiesel, T. N. Receptive field dynamics in adult primary visual cortex. Nature 356, 150-152 (1992).
59. Gilbert, C. D., Li, W. & Piech, V. Perceptual learning and adult cortical plasticity. J. Physiol. 587, 2743-2751 (2009).
60. Darian-Smith, C. & Gilbert, C. D. Axonal sprouting accompanies functional reorganization in adult cat striate cortex. Nature 368, 737-740 (1994).
61. Giannikopoulos, D. V. & Eysel, U. T. Dynamics and specificity of cortical map reorganization after retinal lesions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 10805-10810 (2006).
62. Chino, Y. M., Kaas, J. H., Smith, E. L., Langston, A. L. & Cheng, H. Rapid reorganization of cortical maps in adult cats following restricted deafferentation in retina. Vision Res. 32, 789-796 (1992).
63. Chino, Y. M., Smith, E. L., Kaas, J. H., Sasaki, Y. & Cheng, H. Receptive-field properties of deafferentated visual cortical neurons after topographic map reorganization in adult cats. J. Neurosci. 15, 2417-2433 (1995).
64. Murakami, I., Komatsu, H. & Kinoshita, M. Perceptual filling-in at the scotoma following a monocular retinal lesion in the monkey. Vis. Neurosci. 14, 89-101 (1997).
65. Calford, M. B., Schmid, L. M. & Rosa, M. G. Monocular focal retinal lesions induce short-term topographic plasticity in adult cat visual cortex. Proc. Biol. Sci. 266, 499-507 (1999).
66. Calford, M. B. et al. Plasticity in adult cat visual cortex (area 17) following circumscribed monocular lesions of all retinal layers. J. Physiol. 524, 587-602 (2000).
67. Schmid, L. M., Rosa, M. G., Calford, M. B. & Ambler, J. S. Visuotopic reorganization in the primary visual cortex of adult cats following monocular and binocular retinal lesions. Cereb. Cortex 6, 388-405 (1996).
68. De Weerd, P., Gattass, R., Desimone, R. & Ungerleider, L. G. Responses of cells in monkey visual cortex during perceptual filling-in of an artificial scotoma. Nature 377, 731-734 (1995).
69. Rosa, M. G., Schmid, L. M. & Calford, M. B. Responsiveness of cat area 17 after monocular inactivation: limitation of topographic plasticity in adult cortex. J. Physiol. 482, 589-608 (1995).
70. Schmid, L. M., Rosa, M. G. & Calford, M. B. Retinal detachment induces massive immediate reorganization in visual cortex. Neuroreport 6, 1349-1353 (1995).
71. Darian-Smith, C. & Gilbert, C. D. Topographic reorganization in the striate cortex of the adult cat and monkey is cortically mediated. J. Neurosci. 15, 1631-1647 (1995).
72. Pettet, M. W. & Gilbert, C. D. Dynamic changes in receptive-field size in cat primary visual cortex. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 89, 8366-8370 (1992).
73. DeAngelis, G. C., Anzai, A., Ohzawa, I. & Freeman, R. D. Receptive field structure in the visual cortex: does selective stimulation induce plasticity? Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 92, 9682-9686 (1995).
74. Nowak, L. G., Sanchez-Vives, M. V. & McCormick, D. A. Role of synaptic and intrinsic membrane properties in short-term receptive field dynamics in cat area 17. J. Neurosci. 25, 1866-1880 (2005).
75. Smirnakis, S. M. et al. Lack of long-term cortical reorganization after macaque retinal lesions. Nature 435, 300-307 (2005).
76. Yinon, U., Shemesh, R., Arda, H., Dobin, G. & Jaros, P. P. Physiological studies in deafferented visual cortex cells of cats following transplantation of fetal xenografts from the rat's cortex. Exp. Neurol. 122, 335-341 (1993).
77. Eysel, U. T. & Mayer, U. in Developmental Neurobiology of Vision (ed. Freeman, R. D.) 195-203 (Plenum, New York, 1979).
78. Eysel, U. T., Gonzalez-Aguilar, F. & Mayer, U. A functional sign of reorganization in the visual system of adult cats: lateral geniculate neurons with displaced receptive fields after lesions of the nasal retina. Brain Res. 181, 285-300 (1980).
79. Eysel, U. T., Gonzalez-Aguilar, F. & Mayer, U. Time-dependent decrease in the extent of visual deafferentation in the lateral geniculate nucleus of adult cats with small retinal lesions. Exp. Brain Res. 41, 256-263 (1981).
80. Eysel, U. T. Functional reconnections without new axonal growth in a partially denervated visual relay nucleus. Nature 299, 442-444 (1982).
81. Eysel, U. T. & Neubacher, U. Recovery of function is not associated with proliferation of retinogeniculate synapses after chronic deafferentation in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of the adult cat. Neurosci. Lett. 49, 181-186 (1984).
82. Rodieck, R. W. The First Steps in Seeing (Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts, 1998).
83. Paulus, Y. M. et al. Healing of retinal photocoagulation lesions. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 49, 5540-5545 (2008).
84. Horton, J. & Hoyt, W. The representation of the visual field in human striate cortex. Arch. Opthalmol. 109, 816-824 (1991).
85. Inouye, T. Die Sehstohrungen bei Schussverletzungen der kortikalen Sehsphare (W. Engelmann, Leipzig, Germany, 1909).
86. Wandell, B. A., Dumoulin, S. O. & Brewer, A. A. Visual field maps in human cortex. Neuron 56, 366-383 (2007).
87. Brewer, A. A., Press, W. A., Logothetis, N. K. & Wandell, B. A. Visual areas in macaque cortex measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging. J. Neurosci. 22, 10416-10426 (2002).
88. Fize, D. et al. The retinotopic organization of primate dorsal V4 and surrounding areas: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in awake monkeys. J. Neurosci. 23, 7395-7406 (2003).
89. Baseler, H. A. et al. Reorganization of human cortical maps caused by inherited photoreceptor abnormalities. Nature Neurosci. 5, 364-370 (2002).
90. Curcio, C. A., Sloan, K. R., Kalina, R. E. & Hendrickson, A. E. Human photoreceptor topography. J. Comp. Neurol. 292, 497-523 (1990).
91. Engel, S. A., Glover, G. H. & Wandell, B. A. Retinotopic organization in human visual cortex and the spatial precision of functional MRI. Cereb. Cortex 7, 181-192 (1997).
92. Dougherty, R. F. et al. Visual field representations and locations of visual areas V1/2/3 in human visual cortex. J. Vis. 3, 586-598 (2003).
93. Hadjikhani, N. & Tootell, R. B. Projection of rods and cones within human visual cortex. Hum. Brain Mapp. 9, 55-63 (2000).
94. Dumoulin, S. O. & Wandell, B. A. Population receptive field estimates in human visual cortex. Neuroimage 39, 647-660 (2008).
95. Smith, A. T., Singh, K. D., Williams, A. L. & Greenlee, M. W. Estimating receptive field size from fMRI data in human striate and extrastriate visual cortex. Cereb. Cortex 11, 1182-1190 (2001).
96. Tootell, R. B. et al. Functional analysis of V3A and related areas in human visual cortex. J. Neurosci. 17, 7060-7078 (1997).
97. Kohl, S. et al. Mutations in the cone photoreceptor G-protein α-subunit gene GNAT2 in patients with achromatopsia. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 71, 422-425 (2002).
98. Kohl, S. et al. Mutations in the CNGB3 gene encoding the β-subunit of the cone photoreceptor cGMP-gated channel are responsible for achromatopsia (ACHM3) linked to chromosome 8q21. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 2107-2116 (2000).
99. Khan, N. W., Wissinger, B., Kohl, S. & Sieving, P. A. CNGB3 achromatopsia with progressive loss of residual cone function and impaired rod-mediated function. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48, 3864-3871 (2007).
100. Sharpe, L. T., Stockman, A., Jagle, H. & Nathans, J. in Color Vision: From Genes to Perception (eds Gegenfurtner, K. & Sharpe, L. T.) 3-52 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1999).
101. Sharpe, L. T. & Nordby, K. in Night Vision: Basic, Clinical and Applied Aspects (eds Hess, R. F., Sharpe, L. T. & Nordby, K.) 253-289 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1990).
102. Glickstein, M. & Heath, G. G. Receptors in the monochromat eye. Vision Res. 15, 633-636 (1975).
103. Blakemore, C., Van Sluyters, R. C., Peck, C. K. & Hein, A. Development of cat visual cortex following rotation of one eye. Nature 257, 584-586 (1975).
104. Gordon, B., Moran, J. & Presson, J. Visual fields of cats reared with one eye intorted. Brain Res. 174, 167-171 (1979).
105. Blake, R. & Hirsch, H. V. Deficits in binocular depth perception in cats after alternating monocular deprivation. Science 190, 1114-1116 (1975).
106. Grant, S. & Berman, N. E. Mechanism of anomalous retinal correspondence: maintenance of binocularity with alteration of receptive-field position in the lateral suprasylvian (LS) visual area of strabismic cats. Vis. Neurosci. 7, 259-281 (1991).
107. Sireteanu, R. & Best, J. Squint-induced modification of visual receptive fields in the lateral suprasylvian cortex of the cat: binocular interaction, vertical effect and anomalous correspondence. Eur. J. Neurosci. 4, 235-242 (1992).
108. Sunness, J. S., Liu, T. & Yantis, S. Retinotopic mapping of the visual cortex using functional magnetic resonance imaging in a patient with central scotomas from atrophic macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 111, 1595-1598 (2004).
109. Baker, C. I., Peli, E., Knouf, N. & Kanwisher, N. G. Reorganization of visual processing in macular degeneration. J. Neurosci. 25, 614-618 (2005). An fMRI study suggesting that human visual cortex, when deprived of its normal retinal input, undergoes large-scale reorganization spanning centimetres of cortical space that presumably takes on new functional properties.
110. Baker, C. I., Dilks, D. D., Peli, E. & Kanwisher, N. Reorganization of visual processing in macular degeneration: replication and clues about the role of foveal loss. Vision Res. 48, 1910-1919 (2008).
111. Masuda, Y., Dumoulin, S. O., Nakadomari, S. & Wandell, B. A. V1 projection zone signals in human macular degeneration depend on task, not stimulus. Cereb. Cortex 18, 2483-2493 (2008).
112. Williams, M. A. et al. Feedback of visual object information to foveal retinotopic cortex. Nature Neurosci. 11, 1439-1445 (2008).
113. Barbier, E. L. et al. Imaging cortical anatomy by high-resolution MR at 3.0T: detection of the stripe of Gennari in visual area 17. Magn. Reson. Med. 48, 735-738 (2002).
114. Bridge, H. et al. Independent anatomical and functional measures of the V1/V2 boundary in human visual cortex. J. Vis. 5, 93-102 (2005).
115. Clark, V. P., Courchesne, E. & Grafe, M. In vivo myeloarchitectonic analysis of human striate and extrastriate cortex using magnetic resonance imaging. Cereb. Cortex 2, 417-424 (1992).
116. Logothetis, N., Merkle, H., Augath, M., Trinath, T. & Ugurbil, K. Ultra high-resolution fMRI in monkeys with implanted RF coils. Neuron 35, 227-242 (2002).
117. Schumacher, E. H. et al. Reorganization of visual processing is related to eccentric viewing in patients with macular degeneration. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 26, 391-402 (2008).
118. Dilks, D. D., Baker, C. I., Peli, E. & Kanwisher, N. Reorganization of visual processing in macular degeneration is not specific to the "preferred retinal locus". J. Neurosci. 29, 2768-2773 (2009).
119. Boucard, C. C. et al. Changes in cortical grey matter density associated with long-standing retinal visual field defects. Brain 132, 1898-1906 (2009).
120. O'Craven, K. M. & Kanwisher, N. Mental imagery of faces and places activates corresponding stiimulus-specific brain regions. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 12, 1013-1023 (2000).
121. Ress, D., Backus, B. T. & Heeger, D. J. Activity in primary visual cortex predicts performance in a visual detection task. Nature Neurosci. 3, 940-945 (2000).
122. Sirotin, Y. B. & Das, A. Anticipatory haemodynamic signals in sensory cortex not predicted by local neuronal activity. Nature 457, 475-479 (2009).
123. Calford, M. B. et al. Neuroscience: rewiring the adult brain. Nature 438, E3 (2005).
124. Cavanaugh, J. R., Bair, W. & Movshon, J. A. Nature and interaction of signals from the receptive field center and surround in macaque V1 neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 88, 2530-2546 (2002). (Pubitemid 35346056)
125. Angelucci, A. & Bressloff, P. C. Contribution of feedforward, lateral and feedback connections to the classical receptive field center and extra-classical receptive field surround of primate V1 neurons. Prog. Brain Res. 154, 93-120 (2006).
126. Levitt, J. B. & Lund, J. S. The spatial extent over which neurons in macaque striate cortex pool visual signals. Vis. Neurosci. 19, 439-452 (2002).
127. Pambakian, A. L. & Kennard, C. Can visual function be restored in patients with homonymous hemianopia? Br. J. Ophthalmol. 81, 324-328 (1997).
128. Huxlin, K. R. et al. Perceptual relearning of complex visual motion after V1 damage in humans. J. Neurosci. 29, 3981-3991 (2009).
129. Huxlin, K. R. Perceptual plasticity in damaged adult visual systems. Vision Res. 48, 2154-2166 (2008).
130. Rodman, H. R., Gross, C. G. & Albright, T. D. Afferent basis of visual response properties in area MT of the macaque. I. Effects of striate cortex removal. J. Neurosci. 9, 2033-2050 (1989).
131. Schmid, M. C., Panagiotaropoulos, T., Augath, M., Logothetis, N. K. & Smirnakis, S. M. Visually driven activation in macaque areas V2 and V3 without input from the primary visual cortex. PLoS ONE, 4, e5527 (2009).