A Causal Model of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Risk

Risk Analysis

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 38-62

  Cox, Louis Anthony ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

COPD; Feedback; Mathematical model; Nonlinear; Risk modeling

Indexed keywords

ALVEOLAR EPITHELIAL CELLS; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; BIOLOGICAL RESPONSE; CAUSAL MODEL; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE; CLINICAL INVESTIGATION; CLINICAL SYMPTOMS; COLLAGEN FIBER; COMPLEX DYNAMICS; COMPUTATIONAL MODEL; COPD; CYTOTOXIC; DENDRITIC CELLS; DISEASE PROGRESSION; EPITHELIAL CELLS; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX COMPONENTS; GENETIC STUDIES; IN-SILICO; IN-VITRO; IN-VIVO; LUNG CELLS; LUNG DISEASE; LUNG TISSUE; MOLECULAR LEVELS; NONLINEAR; POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; RISK MODELING; T CELLS; T LYMPHOCYTES; TIME COURSE; WILD TYPES;

BIOLOGICAL ORGANS; CELL CULTURE; CELL DEATH; CELL PROLIFERATION; DEGRADATION; ENZYME ACTIVITY; FEEDBACK; GENETIC ENGINEERING; MACROPHAGES; MAMMALS; NONLINEAR FEEDBACK; PATHOLOGY; TISSUE;

MATHEMATICAL MODELS;

OXIDIZING AGENT; PEPTIDE HYDROLASE;

BLOOD; ENZYME ACTIVITY; ETIOLOGY; GENETIC ENGINEERING; HEALTH RISK; PROTEIN; PUBLIC HEALTH; RESPIRATORY DISEASE; RISK ASSESSMENT; SMOKING; TEMPORAL ANALYSIS; URINE;

ANIMAL; APOPTOSIS; ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNITY; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; DISEASE COURSE; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; HUMAN; IMMUNOLOGY; LUNG ALVEOLUS; MACROPHAGE; MATHEMATICAL PHENOMENA; METABOLISM; MOUSE; NEUTROPHIL; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION;

ANIMALS; APOPTOSIS; AUTOIMMUNITY; DISEASE PROGRESSION; FEEDBACK, PHYSIOLOGICAL; HUMANS; MACROPHAGES; MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS; MICE; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NEUTROPHILS; OXIDANTS; PEPTIDE HYDROLASES; PULMONARY ALVEOLI; PULMONARY DISEASE, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE; RISK FACTORS; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION;

ANIMALIA; MUS; RODENTIA;

EID: 78650567971     PISSN: 02724332     EISSN: 15396924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2010.01487.x     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. Boschetto P, Quintavalle S, Miotto D, Lo Cascio N, Zeni E, Mapp CE. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and occupational exposures. Journal of Occupational Medical Toxicology, 2006 Jun 7; 1:11.
2. Tetley TD. Macrophages and the pathogenesis of COPD. Chest, 2002 May; 121(5 Suppl):156S-159S.
3. Tetley TD. Inflammatory cells and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Current Drug Targets-Inflammation and Allergy, 2005 Dec; 4(6):607-618.
4. Fletcher C, Peto R. The natural history of chronic airflow obstruction. BMJ, 1977; 1(6077):1645-1648.
5. Yao H, Rahman I. Current concepts on the role of inflammation in COPD and lung cancer. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 2009 Aug; 9(4):375-383.
6. Chen YE. MMP-12, an old enzyme plays a new role in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis? American Journal of Pathology, 2004 Oct; 165(4):1069-1070.
7. Xie S, Issa R, Sukkar MB, Oltmanns U, Bhavsar PK, Papi A, Caramori G, Adcock I, Chung KF. Induction and regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-12 in human airway smooth muscle cells. Respiratory Research, 2005 Dec 16; 6:148.
8. Lavigne MC, Thakker P, Gunn J, Wong A, Miyashiro JS, Wasserman AM, Wei SQ, Pelker JW, Kobayashi M, Eppihimer MJ. Human bronchial epithelial cells express and secrete MMP-12. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communication, 2004 Nov 12; 324(2):534-546.
9. Bracke K, Cataldo D, Maes T, Gueders M, Noël A, Foidart JM, Brusselle G, Pauwels RA. Matrix metalloproteinase-12 and cathepsin D expression in pulmonary macrophages and dendritic cells of cigarette smoke-exposed mice. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, 2005 Oct; 138(2):169-179.
10. Nénan S, Boichot E, Lagente V, Bertrand CP. Macrophage elastase (MMP-12): A pro-inflammatory mediator? Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 2005 Mar; 100(Suppl 1):167-172.
11. Babusyte A, Stravinskaite K, Jeroch J, Lötvall J, Sakalauskas R, Sitkauskiene B. Patterns of airway inflammation and MMP-12 expression in smokers and ex-smokers with COPD. Respiratory Research, 2007 Nov 14; 8:81.
12. Lagente V, Le Quement C, Boichot E. Macrophage metalloelastase (MMP-12) as a target for inflammatory respiratory diseases. Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets, 2009 Mar; 13(3):287-295.
13. Hofmann HS, Hansen G, Richter G, Taege C, Simm A, Silber RE, Burdach S. Matrix metalloproteinase-12 expression correlates with local recurrence and metastatic disease in non-small cell lung cancer patients. Clinical Cancer Research, 2005 Feb 1; 11(3):1086-1092.
14. Shapiro SD, Goldstein NM, Houghton AM, Kobayashi DK, Kelley D, Belaaouaj A. Neutrophil elastase contributes to cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice. American Journal of Pathology, 2003 Dec; 163(6):2329-2335.
15. Chua F, Laurent GJ. Neutrophil elastase: Mediator of extracellular matrix destruction and accumulation. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2006 Jul; 3(5):424-427.
16. Houghton AM, Quintero PA, Perkins DL, Kobayashi DK, Kelley DG, Marconcini LA, Mecham RP, Senior RM, Shapiro SD. Elastin fragments drive disease progression in a murine model of emphysema. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 2006 Mar; 116(3):753-759.
17. Djekic UV, Gaggar A, Weathington NM. Attacking the multi-tiered proteolytic pathology of COPD: New insights from basic and translational studies. Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 2009 Feb; 121(2):132-146.
18. + T Cells are required for inflammation and destruction in cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice. Journal of Immunology, 2007 Jun 15; 178(12):8090-8096.
19. Muley T, Wiebel M, Schulz V, Ebert W. Elastinolytic activity of alveolar macrophages in smoking-associated pulmonary emphysema. Clinical Investigator, 1994 Mar; 72(4):269-276.
20. MacNee W. Pulmonary and systemic oxidant/antioxidant imbalance in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2005; 2(1):50-60.
21. Demedts IK, Demoor T, Bracke KR, Joos GF, Brusselle GG. Role of apoptosis in the pathogenesis of COPD and pulmonary emphysema. Respiratory Research, 2006 Mar 30; 7:53.
22. Demedts IK, Morel-Montero A, Lebecque S, Pacheco Y, Cataldo D, Joos GF, Pauwels RA, Brusselle GG. Elevated MMP-12 protein levels in induced sputum from patients with COPD. Thorax, 2006 March; 61(3): 196-201., Accessed August 29, 2010.
23. Thorley AJ, Tetley TD. Pulmonary epithelium, cigarette smoke, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 2007; 2(4):409-428.
24. Kasahara Y, Tuder RM, Cool CD, Lynch DA, Flores SC, Voelkel NF. Endothelial cell death and decreased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 in emphysema. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 2001; 163:737-744.
25. Tuder RM, Zhen L, Cho CY, Taraseviciene-Stewart L, Kasahara Y, Salvemini D, Voelkel NF, Flores SC. Oxidative stress and apoptosis interact and cause emphysema due to vascular endothelial growth factor receptor blockade. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, 2003 Jul; 29(1):88-97.
26. Plataki M, Tzortzaki E, Rytila P, Demosthenes M, Koutsopoulos A, Siafakas NM. Apoptotic mechanisms in the pathogenesis of COPD. International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 2006; 1(2):161-171.
27. Tuder RM, Yoshida T, Fijalkowka I, Biswal S, Petrache I. Role of lung maintenance program in the heterogeneity of lung destruction in emphysema. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2006 Nov; 3(8):673-679.
28. Petrache I, Medler TR, Richter AT, Kamocki K, Chukwueke U, Zhen L, Gu Y, Adamowicz J, Schweitzer KS, Hubbard WC, Berdyshev EV, Lungarella G, Tuder RM. Superoxide dismutase protects against apoptosis and alveolar enlargement induced by ceramide. American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, 2008 Jul; 295(1):L44-L53.
29. Kanazawa H. Role of vascular endothelial growth factor in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Medical Science Monitor, 2007 Nov; 13(11):RA189-RA195.
30. Cai S, Chen P, Zhang C, Chen JB, Wu J. Oral N-acetylcysteine attenuates pulmonary emphysema and alveolar septal cell apoptosis in smoking-induced COPD in rats. Respirology, 2009 Apr; 14(3):354-359.
31. Henson PM, Vandivier RW, Douglas IS. Cell death, remodeling, and repair in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease? Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2006 Nov; 3(8):713-717.
32. Park JW, Ryter SW, Choi AM. Functional significance of apoptosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. COPD, 2007 Dec; 4(4):347-353.
33. Hodge S, Hodge G, Holmes M, Reynolds PN. Increased airway epithelial and T-cell apoptosis in COPD remains despite smoking cessation. European Respiratory Journal, 2005 Mar; 25(3):447-454.
34. Kisseleva T, Brenner DA. Fibrogenesis of parenchymal organs. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2008 Apr 15; 5(3):338-342.
35. Kim S, Nadel JA. Role of neutrophils in mucus hypersecretion in COPD and implications for therapy. Treatments in Respiratory Medicine, 2004; 3(3):147-159.
36. Valença SS, Porto LC. Immunohistochemical study of lung remodeling in mice exposed to cigarette smoke. Journal Brasileiro Pneumologia, 2008 Oct; 34(10):787-795.
37. Tsuji T, Aoshiba K, Nagai A. Cigarette smoke induces senescence in alveolar epithelial cells. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, 2004 Dec; 31(6):643-649.
38. Yao H, Yang SR, Edirisinghe I, Rajendrasozhan S, Caito S, Adenuga D, O'Reilly MA, Rahman I. Disruption of p21 attenuates lung inflammation induced by cigarette smoke, LPS, and fMLP in mice. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, 2008 Jul; 39(1):7-18.
39. Tuder RM, Yun JH, Graham BB. Cigarette smoke triggers code red: p21CIP1/WAF1/SDI1 Switches on danger responses in the lung. American Journal of Cellular Molecular Biology 2008 July; 39(1): 1-6.
40. Wang H, Liu X, Umino T, Sköld CM, Zhu Y, Kohyama T, Spurzem JR, Romberger DJ, Rennard SI. Cigarette smoke inhibits human bronchial epithelial cell repair processes. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, 2001 Dec; 25(6):772-779.
41. Wang H, Liu X, Umino T, Kohyama T, Zhu YK, Wen FQ, Spurzem JR, Romberger DJ, Kim HJ, Rennard SI. Effect of cigarette smoke on fibroblast-mediated gel contraction is dependent on cell density. American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, 2003 Jan; 284(1):L205-L213.
42. Nyunoya T, Monick MM, Klingelhutz A, Yarovinsky TO, Cagley JR, Hunninghake GW. Cigarette smoke induces cellular senescence. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, 2006 Dec; 35(6):681-688.
43. Barceló B, Pons J, Ferrer JM, Sauleda J, Fuster A, Agustí AG. Phenotypic characterisation of T-lymphocytes in COPD: Abnormal CD4+CD25+ regulatory T-lymphocyte response to tobacco smoking. European Respiratory Journal, 2008 Mar; 31(3):555-562.
44. Hodge S, Hodge G, Ahern J, Jersmann H, Holmes M, Reynolds PN. Smoking alters alveolar macrophage recognition and phagocytic ability: Implications in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, 2007 Dec; 37(6):748-755.
45. Barnes PJ, Cosio MG. Characterization of T lymphocytes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS Med, 2004 Oct; 1(1):e20. Epub 2004 Oct 19.
46. Kelsen SG, Aksoy MO, Georgy M, Hershman R, Ji R, Li X, Hurford M, Solomides C, Chatila W, Kim V. Lymphoid follicle cells in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease overexpress the chemokine receptor CXCR3. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 2009 May 1; 179(9):799-805.
47. Hautamaki RD, Kobayashi DK, Senior RM, Shapiro SD. Requirement for macrophage elastase for cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice. Science, 1997 Sep 26; 277(5334):2002-2004.
48. Ofulue AF, Ko M, Abboud RT. Time course of neutrophil and macrophage elastinolytic activities in cigarette smoke-induced emphysema. American Journal Physiology, 1998 Dec; 275(6 Pt 1):L1134-L1144, 576-586.
49. Dillon TJ, Walsh RL, Scicchitano R, Eckert B, Cleary EG, McLennan G. Plasma elastin-derived peptide levels in normal adults, children, and emphysematous subjects. Physiologic and computed tomographic scan correlates. American Review of Respiratory Disease, 1992 Nov; 146(5 Pt 1):1143-1148.
50. Cox LA Jr. A mathematical model of protease-antiprotease homeostasis failure in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Risk Analysis, 2009 Apr; 29(4).
51. Saetta M, Turato G, Baraldo S, Zanin A, Braccioni F, Mapp CE, Maestrelli P, Cavallesco G, Papi A, Fabbri LM. Goblet cell hyperplasia and epithelial inflammation in peripheral airways of smokers with both symptoms of chronic bronchitis and chronic airflow limitation. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 2000 Mar; 161(3 Pt 1):1016-1021.
52. Wallace WA, Gillooly M, Lamb D. Intra-alveolar macrophage numbers in current smokers and non-smokers: A morphometric study of tissue sections. Thorax, 1992 Jun; 47(6):437-440.
53. Domagała-Kulawik J, Maskey-Warzechowska M, Hermano-wicz-Salamon J, Chazan R. Expression of macrophage surface markers in induced sputum of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 2006 Sep; 57(Suppl 4):75-84.
54. Domagala-Kulawik J. Effects of cigarette smoke on the lung and systemic immunity. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 2008 Dec; 59(Suppl 6):19-34.
55. Gamble E, Grootendorst DC, Hattotuwa K, O'Shaughnessy T, Ram FS, Qiu Y, Zhu J, Vignola AM, Kroegel C, Morell F, Pavord ID, Rabe KF, Jeffery PK, Barnes NC. Airway mucosal inflammation in COPD is similar in smokers and ex-smokers: A pooled analysis. European Respiratory Journal, 2007 Sep; 30(3):467-471.
56. Gadgil A, Duncan SR. Role of T-lymphocytes and pro-inflammatory mediators in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 2008; 3(4):531-541.
57. + T-lymphocytes in peripheral airways of smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 1998 Mar; 157(3 Pt 1):822-826.
58. Gadgil A, Zhu X, Sciurba FC, Duncan SR. Altered T-cell phenotypes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2006 Aug; 3(6):487-488.
59. Magno F, Di Stefano A. Contribution of bronchial biopsies in the evaluation of pathogenesis and progression of COPD. Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease, 2007 Dec; 67(4):229-233.
60. O'Reilly P, Jackson PL, Noerager B, Parker S, Dransfield M, Gaggar A, Blalock JE. N-alpha-PGP and PGP, potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for COPD. Respiratory Research, 2009 May 18; 10:38.
61. Takami M, Terry V, Petruzzelli L. Signaling pathways involved in IL-8-dependent activation of adhesion through Mac-1. Journal of Immunology, 2002 May 1; 168(9):4559-4566.
62. Shifren A, Mecham RP. The stumbling block in lung repair of emphysema: Elastic fiber assembly. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2006 Jul; 3(5):428-433.
63. Churg A, Wang RD, Tai H, Wang X, Xie C, Wright JL. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha drives 70% of cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in the mouse. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 2004 Sep 1; 170(5):492-498.
64. Suki B, Bates JH. Extracellular matrix mechanics in lung parenchymal diseases. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 2008 Nov 30; 163(1-3):33-43.
65. Puchelle E, Zahm JM, Tournier JM, Coraux C. Airway epithelial repair, regeneration, and remodeling after injury in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2006 Nov; 3(8):726-733.
66. Imai K, Mercer BA, Schulman LL, Sonett JR, D'Armiento JM. Correlation of lung surface area to apoptosis and proliferation in human emphysema. European Respiratory Journal, 2005 Feb; 25(2):250-258.
67. Morissette MC, Parent J, Milot J. Alveolar epithelial and endothelial cell apoptosis in emphysema: What we know and what we need to know. International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 2009; 4:19-31.
68. Tsuji T, Aoshiba K, Nagai A. Alveolar cell senescence in patients with pulmonary emphysema. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 2006 Oct 15; 174(8):886-893.
69. McPhillips K, Janssen WJ, Ghosh M, Byrne A, Gardai S, Remigio L, Bratton DL, Kang JL, Henson P. TNF-alpha inhibits macrophage clearance of apoptotic cells via cytosolic phospholipase A2 and oxidant-dependent mechanisms. Journal of Immunology, 2007 Jun 15; 178(12):8117-8126.
70. Richens TR, Linderman DJ, Horstmann SA, Lambert C, Xiao YQ, Keith RL, Boé DM, Morimoto K, Bowler RP, Day BJ, Janssen WJ, Henson PM, Vandivier RW. Cigarette smoke impairs clearance of apoptotic cells through oxidant-dependent activation of RhoA. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 2009 Jun 1; 179(11):1011-1021.
71. Kirkham P. Oxidative stress and macrophage function: A failure to resolve the inflammatory response. Biochemical Society Transactions, 2007 Apr; 35(Pt 2):284-287.
72. Kuwano K. Epithelial cell apoptosis and lung remodeling. Cellular and Molecular Immunology, 2007 Dec; 4(6):419-429.
73. Louhelainen N, Rytilä P, Haahtela T, Kinnula VL, Djukanović R. Persistence of oxidant and protease burden in the airways after smoking cessation. BMC Pulmonary Medicine, 2009 May 27; 9:25.
74. Mizia-Stec K, Gasior Z, Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Holecki M, Kumor P. Inflammatory markers in a 2-year follow-up of coronary artery disease. Heart Vessels, 2006 Sep; 21(5):302-308.
75. Mizia-Stec K, Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Gasior Z. Cigarette smoking and inflammatory indices in coronary artery disease. International Journal of Cardiology, 2004 Feb; 93(2-3):169-174.
76. Willemse BW, ten Hacken NH, Rutgers B, Lesman-Leegte IG, Postma DS, Timens W. Effect of 1-year smoking cessation on airway inflammation in COPD and asymptomatic smokers. European Respiratory Journal, 2005 Nov; 26(5):835-845.
77. Lapperre TS, Postma DS, Gosman MM, Snoeck-Stroband JB, ten Hacken NH, Hiemstra PS, Timens W, Sterk PJ, Mauad T. Relation between duration of smoking cessation and bronchial inflammation in COPD. Thorax, 2006 Feb; 61(2):115-121.
78. Van Tiel E, Peeters PH, Smit HA, Nagelkerke NJ, Van Loon AJ, Grobbee DE, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB. Quitting smoking may restore hematological characteristics within five years. Annals of Epidemiology, 2002 Aug; 12(6):378-388.
79. Burgel PR, Nadel JA. Epidermal growth factor receptor-mediated innate immune responses and their roles in airway diseases. European Respiratory Journal, 2008 Oct; 32(4):1068-1081.
80. Schulz C, Krätzel K, Wolf K, Schroll S, Köhler M, Pfeifer M. Activation of bronchial epithelial cells in smokers without airway obstruction and patients with COPD. Chest, 2004 May; 125(5):1706-1713.
81. Lapperre TS, Sont JK, van Schadewijk A, Gosman MM, Postma DS, Bajema IM, Timens W, Mauad T, Hiemstra PS. GLUCOLD Study Group. Smoking cessation and bronchial epithelial remodelling in COPD: A cross-sectional study. Respiratory Research, 2007 Nov 26; 8:85.
82. Yokohori N, Aoshiba K, Nagai A. Respiratory Failure Research Group in Japan. Increased levels of cell death and proliferation in alveolar wall cells in patients with pulmonary emphysema. Chest, 2004 Feb; 125(2):626-632.
83. Smyth LJ, Starkey C, Gordon FS, Vestbo J, Singh D. CD8 chemokine receptors in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clinical and Experimental Immunology, 2008 Oct; 154(1):56-63.
84. Cosio MG, Majo J, Cosio MG. Inflammation of the airways and lung parenchyma in COPD: Role of T cells. Chest, 2002 May; 121(5 Suppl):160S-165S.
85. Lambers C, Hacker S, Posch M, Hoetzenecker K, Pollreisz A, Lichtenauer M, Klepetko W, Ankersmit HJ. T cell senescence and contraction of T cell repertoire diversity in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clinical and Experimental Immunology, 2009 Mar; 155(3):466-475.
86. Goven D, Boutten A, Leçon-Malas V, Marchal-Sommé J, Amara N, Crestani B, Fournier M, Lesèche G, Soler P, Boczkowski J, Bonay M. Altered Nrf2/Keap1-Bach1 equilibrium in pulmonary emphysema. Thorax, 2008 Oct; 63(10):916-924.
87. Shaykhiev R, Krause A, Salit J, Strulovici-Barel Y, Harvey BG, O'Connor TP, Crystal RG. Smoking-dependent reprogramming of alveolar macrophage polarization: Implication for pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Journal of Immunology, 2009 Jul 27.
88. Maestrelli P, Saetta M, Mapp CE, Fabbri LM. Remodeling in response to infection and injury. Airway inflammation and hypersecretion of mucus in smoking subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 2001 Nov 15; 164(10 Pt 2):S76-S80.
89. Li QY, Huang SG, Wan HY, Wu HC, Zhou T, Li M, Deng WW. Effect of smoking cessation on airway inflammation of rats with chronic bronchitis. Chinese Medical Journal, 2007 Sep 5; 120(17):1511-1516.
90. Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. NHLBI/WHO Workshop Report updated 2005, Accessed August 29, 2010.
91. Liu CY, Liu YH, Lin SM, Yu CT, Wang CH, Lin HC, Lin CH, Kuo HP. Apoptotic neutrophils undergoing secondary necrosis induce human lung epithelial cell detachment. Journal of Biomedical Science, 2003 Nov-Dec; 10(6 Pt 2):746-756. Respiratory Research2008 Dec 16; 9:83.