The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two sides of the same coin?

Educational Researcher

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 59-68

  Gregory, Anne ^a   Skiba, Russell J ^b   Noguera, Pedro A ^c  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Achievement gap; At risk students; Classroom management; School psychology; Student behavior attitude; Violence

Indexed keywords

EID: 77951470967     PISSN: 0013189X     EISSN: 1935102X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3102/0013189X09357621     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. New York: W. W. Norton.
2. Arcia, E. (2006). Achievement and enrollment status of suspended students: Outcomes in a large, multicultural school district. Education and Urban Society, 38, 359-369.
3. Bauer, L., Guerino, P., Nolle, K. L., & Tang, S. (2008). Student victimization in U.S. schools: Results from the 2005 school crime supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCES 2009-306). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
4. Bollmer, J., Bethel, J., Garrison-Mogren, R., & Brauen, M. (2007). Using the risk ratio to assess racial/ethnic disproportionality in special education at the school-district level. Journal of Special Education, 41, 186-198.
5. Boykin, A. W., Tyler, K. M., & Miller, O. (2005). In search of cultural themes and their expressions in the dynamics of classroom life. Urban Education, 40, 521-549.
6. Brantlinger, E. (1991). Social class distinctions in adolescents' reports of problems and punishment in school. Behavioral Disorders, 17, 36-46.
7. Brophy, J. (1988). Classroom management as socializing students into clearly articulated roles. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 33(1), 1-4.
8. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2005). Crime victimization, 2005. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cv05.pdf
9. Children's Defense Fund. (1975). School suspensions: Are they helping children? Cambridge, MA: Washington Research Project.
10. Choi, Y. (2007). Academic achievement and problem behaviors among Asian Pacific Islander American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 403-415.
11. Coutinho, M. J., & Oswald, D. P. (2000). Disproportionate representation in special education: A synthesis and recommendations. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 9, 135-156.
12. Dance, L. (2002). Tough fronts: The impact of street culture on schooling. London: Routledge.
13. Darling-Hammond, L. (2004). Inequality and the right to learn: Access to qualified teachers in California's public schools. Teachers College Record, 106, 1936-1966.
14. Davies, H., Crombie, I., & Tavakoli, M. (1998). When can odds ratios mislead? British Medical Journal, 316, 989-991.
15. Davis, J. E., & Jordan, W. J. (1994). The effects of school context, structure, and experiences on African American males in middle and high schools. Journal of Negro Education, 63, 570-587.
16. Devine, P. G., & Elliot, A. J. (2000). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. In C. Stangor (Eds.), Stereotypes and prejudice: Essential readings (pp. 86-99). New York: Psychology Press.
17. DeVoe, J. F., & Darling-Churchill, K. E. (2008). Status and trends in the education of American Indians and Alaska Natives: 2008 (NCES 2008- 084). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
18. Dinkes, R., Cataldi, E. F., & Lin-Kelly, W. (2007). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2007 (NCES 2008-021/NCJ 219553). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice.
19. Donovan, M. S., & Cross, C. T. (Eds.). (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
20. Dovidio, J. F., Glick, P. G., & Rudman, L. (2005). On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
21. Duncan, G. J., Brooks-Gunn, J., &Klebanov, P. K. (1994). Economic deprivation and early childhood development. Child Development, 65, 296-318.
22. Eitle, T. M., & Eitle, D. J. (2004). Inequality, segregation, and the over- representation of African Americans in school suspensions. Sociological Perspectives, 47, 269-287.
23. Ekstrom, R. B., Goertz, M. E., Pollack, J. M., & Rock, D. A. (1986). Who drops out of high school and why? Findings from a national study. Teachers College Record, 87, 356-373.
24. Ferguson, A. A. (2000). Bad boys: Public school and the making of Black masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
25. Finn, J. D. (1982). Patterns in special education placement as revealed by the OCR survey. In K. A. Heller, W. H. Holtzman, & S. Messick (Eds.), Placing children in special education: A strategy for equity (pp. 322-381). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
26. Fisher, C. W., Berliner, D. C., Filby, N. N., Marliave, R., Cahen, L. S., & Dishaw, M. M. (1981). Teaching behaviors, academic learningtime, and student achievement: An overview. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 17(1), 2-15.
27. Freiberg, H. J., & Lapointe, J. M. (2006). Research-based programs for preventing and solving discipline problems. In C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management (pp. 735-786). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
28. Gay, G. (2006). Connections between classroom management and culturally responsive teaching. In C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management (pp. 343-372). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
29. Goldstein, M., & Noguera, P. (2006, Spring). Designing for diversity: How educators can use cultural competence in developing substance abuse prevention programs for urban youth. New Directions for Youth Development, pp. 29-40.
30. Gordon, R., Della Piana, L., & Keleher, T. (2000, March). Facing the consequences: An examination of racial discrimination in U.S. public schools. Oakland, CA: Applied Research Center.
31. Gorman-Smith, D., & Tolan, P. H. (1998). The role of exposure to violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 101-116.
32. Gottman, J. M., & Roy, A. K. (1990). Sequential analysis: A guide for behavioral researchers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
33. Graham, S., & Lowery, B. S. (2004). Priming unconscious racial stereo-types about adolescent offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 483-504.
34. Greenwood, C. R., Horton, B. T., & Utley, C. A. (2002). Academic engagement: Current perspectives on research and practice. School Psychology Review, 31, 328-349.
35. Gregory, A., & Weinstein, R. S. (2004). Connection and regulation at home and in school: Predicting growth in achievement for adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 405-427.
36. Gregory, A., & Weinstein, R. S. (2008). The discipline gap and African Americans: Defiance or cooperation in the high school classroom. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 455-475.
37. Gregory, J. F. (1997). Three strikes and they're out: African American boys and American schools' responses to misbehavior. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 7, 25-34.
38. Gun-Free Schools Act of 1994, 20 U.S.C. Chapter 70, Sec. 8921 Gun- free requirements (1994).
39. Hawkins, J. D., Smith, B. H., & Catalano, R. F. (2004). Social development and social and emotional learning. In J. E. Zins, R. P. Weissberg, M. C. Wang, & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? (pp. 135-150). New York: Teachers College Press.
40. Hemphill, S. A., Toumbourou, J. W., Herrenkohl, T. I., McMorris, B. J., & Catalano, R. F. (2006). The effect of school suspensions and arrests on subsequent adolescent antisocial behavior in Australia and the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 736-744.
41. Hindelang, M. J., Hirschi, T., & Weis, J. G. (1979). Correlates of delinquency: The illusion of discrepancy between self-report and official measures. American Sociological Review, 4, 995-1014.
42. Hosp, J. L., & Reschly, D. J. (2003). Referral rates for intervention and assessment: A meta-analysis of racial differences. Journal of Special Education, 37, 67-81.
43. Irvine, J. J. (2002). In search of wholeness: African American teachers and their culturally competent classroom practices. New York: Palgrave.
44. KewelRamani, A., Gilbertson, L., Fox, M., & Provasnik, S. (2007). Status and trends in the education of racial and ethnic minorities (NCES 2007-039). Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved February 3, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/ pubs2007/2007039.pdf
45. Kochman, T. (1981). Black and White styles of conflict. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
46. Kozol, J. (2005). The shame of the nation: The restoration of apartheid schooling in America. New York: Crown.
47. Krezmien, M. P., Leone, P. E., & Achilles, G. M. (2006). Suspension, race, and disability: Analysis of statewide practices and reporting. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 14, 217-226.
48. Kuther, T. L., & Fisher, C. B. (1998). Victimization by community violence in young adolescents from a suburban city. Journal of Early Adolescence, 18, 53-76.
49. Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that's just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory Into Practice, 34, 159-165.
50. Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3-12.
51. McCarthy, J. D., & Hoge, D. R. (1987). Social construction of school punishment. Social Forces, 65, 1101-1120.
52. McFadden, A. C., Marsh, G. E., Price, B. J., & Hwang, Y. (1992). A study of race and gender bias in the punishment of handicapped school children. Urban Review, 24, 239-251.
53. McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185-204.
54. Miles, S. B., & Stipek, D. (2006). Contemporaneous and longitudinal associations between social behavior and literacy achievement in a sample of low-income elementary school children. Child Development, 77, 103-117.
55. Monroe, C. R., & Obidah, J. E. (2004). The influence of cultural synchronization on a teacher's perceptions of disruption. Journal of Teacher Education, 55, 256-268.
56. Morrison, G. M., Anthony, S., Storino, M., Cheng, J., Furlong, M. F., & Morrison, R. L. (2001). School expulsion as a process and an event: Before and after effects on children at-risk for school discipline. New Directions for Youth Development: Theory, Practice, Research, 92, 45-72.
57. Morrison, G. M., & Skiba, R. J. (2001). Predicting violence from school misbehavior: Promises and perils. Psychology in the Schools, 38, 173-184.
58. National Association of Secondary School Principals. (2000, February). Statement on civil rights implications of zero tolerance programs. Testimony presented to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Washington, DC.
59. Noguera, P. A. (2003). City schools and the American dream. New York: Teachers College Press.
60. Noguera, P. A. (2007). How listening to students can help schools to improve. Theory Into Practice, 46, 205-211.
61. Noguera, P. A., & Akom, A. (2000). The opportunity gap. Wilson Quarterly, 24, 86.
62. Noguera, P. A., & Yonemura Wing, J. (2006). Unfinished business: Closing the racial achievement gap in our nation's schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
63. Ozer, E. (2005). The impact of violence on urban adolescents: Longitudinal effects of perceived school connection and family support. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 167-192.
64. Parrish, T. (2002). Racial disparities in the identification, funding, and provision of special education. In D. J. Losen & G. Orfield (Eds.), Racial inequity in special education (pp. 15-37). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
65. Piquero, A. R. (2008). Disproportionate minority contact. Future of Children, 18, 59-79.
66. Pollack, M. (2008). Everyday anti-racism. London: New Press.
67. Raffaele Mendez, L. M. (2003). Predictors of suspension and negative school outcomes: A longitudinal investigation. In J. Wald & D. J. Losen (Eds.), New directions for youth development: No. 99. Deconstructing the school-to-prison pipeline (pp. 17-34). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
68. Raffaele Mendez, L. M., Knoff, H. M., & Ferron, J. M. (2002). School demographic variables and out-of-school suspension rates: A quantitative and qualitative analysis of large ethnically diverse school district. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 259-276.
69. Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
70. Rausch, M. K., & Skiba, R. J. (2004). Unplanned outcomes: Suspensions and expulsions in Indiana. Bloomington, IN: Center for Evaluation and Education Policy. Retrieved July 21, 2004, from http://ceep.indiana.edu/ChildrenLeftBehind
71. Sampson, R. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Raudenbush, S. (2005). Social anatomy of racial and ethnic disparities in violence. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 224-232.
72. Shaw, S. R., & Braden, J. B. (1990). Race and gender bias in the administration of corporal punishment. School Psychology Review, 19, 378-384.
73. Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. Urban Review, 34, 317-342.
74. Skiba, R. J., Simmons, A. B., Ritter, S., Gibb, A. C., Rausch, M. K., & Cuadrado, J. (2008). Achieving equity in special education: History, status, and current challenges. Exceptional Children, 74, 264-288.
75. Stewart, E. A., Schreck, C. J., & Simons, R. L. (2006). "I ain't gonna let no one disrespect me": Does the code of the street reduce or increase violent victimization among African American adolescents? Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 43, 427-458.
76. Thornton, C. H., & Trent, W. (1988). School desegregation and suspension in East Baton Rouge Parish: A preliminary report. Journal of Negro Education, 57, 482-501.
77. Townsend, B. L. (2000). The disproportionate discipline of African American learners: Suspensions and expulsions. Exceptional Children, 66, 381-391.
78. Tyler, K. M., Boykin, A. W., & Walton, T. R. (2006). Cultural considerations in teachers' perceptions of student classroom behavior and achievement. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 22, 998-1005.
79. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). Status and trends in the education of Hispanics (NCES 2003-2008). Washington, DC: Author.
80. Vavrus, F., & Cole, K. M. (2002). "I didn't do nothin'": The discursive construction of school suspension. Urban Review, 34, 87-111
81. Wallace, J. M., Jr., Goodkind, S., Wallace, C. M., &Bachman, J. G. (2008). Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in school discipline among U.S. high school students: 1991-2005. Negro Educational Review, 59, 47-62.
82. Wehlage, G. G., & Rutter, R. A. (1986). Dropping out: How much do schools contribute to the problem? Teachers College Record, 87, 374-393.
83. Weinstein, C. S., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004). Toward a conception of culturally responsive classroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, 55, 25-38.
84. Weinstein, R. S. (2002). Reaching higher: The power of expectations in schooling. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
85. Weinstein, R. S., Gregory, A., & Strambler, M. (2004). Intractable selffulfilling prophecies: Fifty years after Brown v. Board of Education. American Psychologist, 59, 511-519.
86. Welsh, W. N., Greene, J. R., & Jenkins, P. H. (1999). School disorder: The influence of individual, institutional, and community factors. Criminology, 37, 601-643.
87. Westat, Inc. (2004). Summary of task force meeting on racial/ethnic disproportionality in special education. Washington, DC: Author.
88. Westat, Inc. (2005). Methods for assessing racial/ethnic disproportionality in special education: A technical assistance guide. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education Office of Special Education Programs. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from https://www.ideadata.org/docs/ Disproportionality%20Technical%20Assistance%20Guide.pdf
89. Wu, S., Pink, W., Crain, R. L., & Moles, O. (1982). Student suspension: A critical reappraisal. Urban Review, 14, 245-272.