Design factors for educationally effective animations and simulations

Journal of Computing in Higher Education

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 31-61

  Plass, Jan L ^a   Homer, Bruce D ^b   Hayward, Elizabeth O ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

Author keywords

Animation; Cognition; Design; Learning; Science; Simulation; Visualization

Indexed keywords

EID: 77949941265     PISSN: 10421726     EISSN: 18671233     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12528-009-9011-x     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Ainsworth, S. (2006). DeFT: A conceptual framework for considering learning with multiple representations. Learning and Instruction, 16(3), 183-198.
2. Ainsworth, S., & VanLabeke, N. (2004). Multiple forms of dynamic representation. Learning and Instruction, 14, 241-255.
3. Arnheim, R. (1969). Art and visual perception: A psychology of the creative eye. Berkeley: University of California Press.
4. Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2005). The split-attention principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge.
5. Azevedo, R., & Bernard, R. M. (1995). A meta-analysis of the effects of feedback in computer-based instruction. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 13(2), 111-127.
6. Barry, A. M. (1997). Visual intelligence: Perception, image, and manipulation in visual communication. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
7. Bertin, J. (1983). Semiology of graphics: Diagrams, networks, maps. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
8. Betrancourt, M. (2005). The animation and interactivity principles in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge.
9. Bodemer, D., Ploetzner, R., Bruchmüller, K., & Häcker, S. (2005). Supporting learning with interactive multimedia through active integration of representations. Instructional Science, 33, 73-95.
10. Bodemer, D., Ploetzner, R., Feuerlein, I., & Spada, H. (2004). The active integration of information during learning with dynamic and interactive visualizations. Learning and Instruction, 14, 325-341.
11. Brünken, R., Plass, J. L., & Leutner, D. (2004). Assessment of cognitive load in multimedia learning with dual-task methodology: Auditory load and modality effects. Instructional Science, 32(1), 115-132.
12. Brünken, R., Steinbacher, S., Plass, J. L., & Leutner, D. (2002). Assessment of cognitive load in multimedia learning using dual-task methodology. Experimental psychology, 49(2), 109-119.
13. Carlson, R., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003). Learning and understanding science instructional material. Journal of educational psychology, 95(3), 629-640.
14. Carney, R. N., & Levin, J. R. (2002). Pictorial illustrations still improve students' learning from text. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 5-26.
15. Chandler, P. (2004). The crucial role of cognitive processes in the design of dynamic visualizations. Learning and Instruction, 14, 353-357.
16. Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445-459.
17. Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21-29.
18. Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149-210.
19. Cook, M. P. (2006). Visual representations in science education: The influence of prior knowledge and cognitive load theory on instructional design principles. Science Education, 90(6), 1073-1091.
20. Darabi, A. A., Nelson, D. W., & Palanki, S. (2007). Acquisition of troubleshooting skills in a computer simulation: Worked example vs. conventional problem solving instructional strategies. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(4), 1809-1819.
21. de Jong, T. (2005). The guided discovery principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 215-228). New York: Cambridge.
22. de Jong, T., & van Joolingen, W. R. (1998). Scientific discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual domains. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 179-201.
23. de Koning, B., Tabbers, H., Rikers, R., & Paas, F. (2007). Attention cueing as a means to enhance learning from an animation. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 731-746.
24. Desimone, R., & Duncan, J. (1995). Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 18, 193-222.
25. Dwyer, F. M. (1972). A guide for improving visualized instruction. State College, PA: Learning Services.
26. Dwyer, F. M. (1978). Strategies for improving visual learning. State College, PA: Learning Services.
27. Dwyer, F. M., & Moore, D. M. (1991). Effect of color coding on visually oriented tests with students of different cognitive styles. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 125(6), 677-680.
28. Fletcher, J. D., & Tobias, S. (2005). The multimedia principle. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
29. Garg, A. X., Norman, G., & Sperotable, L. (2001). How medical students learn spatial anatomy. The Lancet, 357, 363-364.
30. Gibson, J. J. (1961). Ecological optics. Vision Research, 1(3-4), 253-262.
31. Goldman, S. R. (2003). Learning in complex domains: When and why do multiple representations help? Learning and Instruction, 13, 239-244.
32. Graesser, A. C., Millis, K. K., & Zwaan, R. A. (1997). Discourse comprehension. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 163-189.
33. Grèzes, J., Costes, N., & Decety, J. (1998). Top-down effect of strategy on the perception of human biological motion: A PET investigation. Cognitive Neuropsychology. Special Issue: Perception and action: Recent Advances in Cognitive Neuropsychology, 15(6), 553-582.
34. Guthrie, J. T., Weber, S., & Kimmerly, N. (1993). Searching documents: Cognitive processes and deficits in understanding graphs, tables, and illustrations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18(2), 186-221.
35. Hall, R. H., & Sidio-Hall, M. A. (1994a). The effect of color enhancement on knowledge map processing. Journal of Experimental Education, 62(3), 209-217.
36. Hall, R. H., & Sidio-Hall, M. A. (1994b). The effect of student color coding of knowledge maps and test anxiety on student learning. Journal of Experimental Education, 62(4), 291-302.
37. Harman, K. L., Humphrey, G. K., & Goodale, M. A. (1999). Active manual control of object views facilitates visual recognition. Current Biology, 9, 1315-1318.
38. Harp, S. F., & Mayer, R. E. (1997). The role of interest in learning from scientific text and illustrations: On the distinction between emotional interest and cognitive interest. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(1), 92-102.
39. Harp, S. F., & Mayer, R. E. (1998). How seductive details do their damage: A theory of cognitive interest in science learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(3), 414-434.
40. Hasler, B. S., Kersten, B., & Sweller, J. (2007). Learner control, cognitive load and instructional animation. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 713-729.
41. Hegarty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: Getting to the difficult questions. Learning and Instruction, 14(3), 343-351.
42. Hegarty, M., & Just, M. A. (1993). Constructing mental models of machines from text and diagrams. Journal of Memory and Language, 32(6), 717-742.
43. Helmuth, L. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience. Fear and trembling in the amygdala. Science, 300(5619), 568-569.
44. Höffler, T., & Leutner, D. (2007). Instructional animation versus static pictures: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 17, 722-738.
45. Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 1122-1131.
46. Isen, A. M., & Patrick, R. (1983). The effect of positive feelings on risk-taking: When the chips are down. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 31, 194-202.
47. James, K. H., Humphrey, G. K., Vilis, T., Corrie, B., Baddour, R., & Goodale, M. A. (2002). "Active" and "passive" learning of three-dimensional object structure within an immersive virtual reality environment. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 34, 383-390.
48. Jeung, H., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997). The role of visual indicators in dual sensory mode instruction. Educational Psychology, 17, 329-343.
49. Kalyuga, S. (2007). Enhancing instructional efficiency of interactive e-learning environments: A cognitive load perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 387-399.
50. Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1999). Managing split-attention and redundancy in multimedia instruction. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13(4), 351-371.
51. Keller, T., Gerjets, P., Scheiter, K., & Garsoffky, B. (2006). Information visualizations for knowledge acquisition: The impact of dimensionality and color coding. Computers in Human Behavior, 22(1), 43-65.
52. Kennedy, G. E. (2004). Promoting cognition in multimedia interactivity research. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 15(1), 43-61.
53. Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86.
54. Kosslyn, S. M. (1989). Understanding charts and graphs. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 3(3), 185-225.
55. Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). Image and brain: The resolution of the imagery debate. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
56. Kosslyn, S. M., & Koenig, O. (1992). Wet mind: The new cognitive neuroscience (p. 548). New York: Free Press.
57. Kozma, R. B., & Russell, J. (1997). Multimedia and understanding: Expert and novice responses to different representations of chemical phenomena. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34, 949-968.
58. Kulhavy, R. W., Stock, W. A., & Kealy, W. A. (1993). How geographic maps increase recall of instructional text. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(4), 47-62.
59. Kulhavy, R. W., Stock, W. A., & Peterson, S. E. (1992). Using maps to retrieve text: A test of conjoint retention. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 17, 56-70.
60. Lavie, N. (2005). Distracted and confused? Selective attention under load. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(2), 75-82.
61. LeDoux, J. (2003). The emotional brain, fear, and the amygdala. Cellular and molecular neurobiology, 23, 727-738.
62. Lee, H., Plass, J. L., & Homer, B. D. (2006). Optimizing cognitive load for learning from computer-based science simulations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 902-913.
63. Levie, W. H., Houghton, H. A., & Willows, D. M. (1987). Research on pictures: A guide to the literature. In D. M. Willows & H. A. Houghton (Eds.), The psychology of illustration: Vol. I. Basic research (pp. 1-50). New York: Springer-Verlag.
64. Levin, J. R. (1989). A transfer-appropriate-processing perspective of pictures in prose. In H. Mandl & J. R. Levin (Eds.), Knowledge acquisition from text and pictures (p. 58). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers.
65. Levin, J. R., Anglin, G. J., & Carney, R. R. (1987). On empirically validating functions of pictures in prose. In D. M. Willows & H. A. Houghton (Eds.), The psychology of illustration: Vol. I. Basic research (pp. 51-85). New York: Springer.
66. Logie, R. H., & Della Sala, S. (2005). Disorders of visuospatial working memory. In P. Shah & A. Miyake (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of visuospatial thinking (pp. 81-120). New York: Cambridge.
67. Lorch, R. F., Jr. (1989). Text signaling devices and their effects on reading and memory processes. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 209-234.
68. Low, R., & Sweller, J. (2005). The modality principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 147-158). New York: Cambridge.
69. Lowe, R. K. (2003). Animation and learning: selective processing of information in dynamic graphics. Learning and Instruction, 13, 157-176.
70. Lowe, R. (2004). Interrogation of a dynamic visualization during learning. Learning and Instruction, 14, 257-274.
71. Mandl, H., & Levin, J. R. (1989). Knowledge acquisition from text and pictures. New York: North-Holland.
72. Mautone, P. D., & Mayer, R. E. (2001). Signaling as a cognitive guide in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), 377-389.
73. Mayer, R. E. (1989). Models for understanding. Review of Educational Research, 59(1), 43-64.
74. Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge.
75. Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? American Psychologist, 59(1), 14-19.
76. Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (2005a). Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge.
77. Mayer, R. E. (2005b). Principles for managing essential processing in multimedia learning: Segmenting, pretraining, and modality principles. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 169-182). New York: Cambridge.
78. Mayer, R. E. (2005c). Principles for reducing extraneous processing in multimedia learning: Coherence, signaling, redundancy, spatial contiguity and temporal contiguity principles. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 183-200). New York: Cambridge.
79. Mayer, R. E., Bove, W., Bryman, A., Mars, R., & Tapangco, L. (1996). When less is more: Meaningful learning from visual and verbal summaries of science textbook lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 64-73.
80. Mayer, R. E., & Chandler, P. (2001). When learning is just a click away: Does simple user interaction foster deeper understanding of multimedia messages? Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), 390-397.
81. Mayer, R. E., Deleeuw, K. E., & Ayres, P. (2007). Creating retroactive and proactive interference in multimedia learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology. Special Issue: A Cognitive Load Approach to the Learning Effectiveness of Instructional Animation, 21(6), 795-809.
82. Mayer, R. E., Dow, G. T., & Mayer, S. (2003). Multimedia learning in an interactive self-explaining environment: What works in the design of agent-based microworlds? Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 806-812.
83. Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 715-726.
84. Mayer, R. E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 187-198.
85. Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998). A split-attention effect in multimedia learning: Evidence for dual processing systems in working memory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 312-320.
86. Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.
87. Mayer, R., & Moreno, R. E. (in press). Techniques that reduce extraneous cognitive load and manage intrinsic cognitive load during multimedia learning. In J. L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brünken (Eds.), Cognitive load: Theory and application. New York: Cambridge University Press.
88. Mayer, R. E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G., & Mars, R. (1995). A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text. Educational Technology Research and Development, 43(1), 31-43.
89. Mesulam, M. M. (1998). From sensation to cognition. Brain, 121, 1013-1052.
90. Moreno, R. (2004). Decreasing cognitive load for novice students: Effects of explanatory versus corrective feedback in discovery-based multimedia. Instructional Science, 32(1-2), 99-113.
91. Moreno, R. (2006). Learning in high-tech and multimedia environments. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(2), 63-67.
92. Moreno, R. (2007). Optimising learning from animations by minimising cognitive load: Cognitive and affective consequences of signaling and segmentation methods. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 765-781.
93. Moreno, R., & Durán, R. (2004). Do multiple representations need explanations? The role of verbal guidance and individual differences in multimedia mathematics learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 492-503.
94. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (1999). Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 358-368.
95. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2000). A coherence effect in multimedia learning: The case for minimizing irrelevant sounds in the design of multimedia instructional messages. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(1), 117-125.
96. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2005). Role of guidance, reflection, and interactivity in an agent-based multimedia game. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 117-128.
97. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. (2007). Interactive multimodal learning environments: Special issue on interactive learning environments: Contemporary issues and trends. Educational Psychology Review. Special Issue: Interactive Learning Environments: Contemporary Issues and Trends, 19(3), 309-326.
98. Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 519-533.
99. Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Gopalakrishnan, M., & Casey, J. (1995). The effects of feedback and incentives in achievement in computer-based instruction. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20, 32-50.
100. Mousavi, S. Y., Low, R., & Sweller, J. (1995). Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(2), 319-334.
101. Niemiec, R., Sikorski, C., & Walberg, H. J. (1996). Learner-control effects: A review of reviews and a meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 15(2), 157-174.
102. Norman, D. (2003). Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York: Basic Books.
103. Oliveri, M., Turriziani, P., Carlesimo, G. A., Koch, G., Tomaiuolo, F., Panella, M., et al. (2001). Parieto-frontal interactions in visual-object and visual-spatial working memory: Evidence from transcranial magnetic stimulation. Cerebral Cortex, 11(7), 606-618.
104. Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes (p. 596). Oxford, England: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
105. Paivio, A. (1991). Images in mind: The evolution of a theory. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
106. Paivio, A., & Csapo, K. (1973). Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding? Cognitive psychology, 5(2), 176-206.
107. Peirce, C. S. (1955). Logic as semiotic: The theory of signs. In J. Buchler (Ed.), The philosophical writings of Peirce (pp. 98-110). New York: Dover Books.
108. Penney, C. G. (1989). Modality effects and the structure of short-term verbal memory. Memory & Cognition, 17(4), 398-422.
109. Plass, J. L., Chun, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Leutner, D. (1998). Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second-language multimedia learning environment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 25-36.
110. Plass, J. L., Chun, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Leutner, D. (2003). Cognitive load in reading a foreign language text with multimedia aids and the influence of verbal and spatial abilities. Computers in Human Behavior, 19(2), 221-243.
111. Plass, J. L., Hamilton, H., & Wallen, E. (2004, April). The effects of three types of multimedia aids on three cognitive learning outcomes in the comprehension of scientific texts. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (AERA) in San Diego, CA.
112. Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., Milne, C., Jordan, T., Kalyuga, S., Kim, M., et al. (2009). Design factors for effective science simulations: Representation of information. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 1(1), 16-35.
113. Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., Milne, C., Jordan, T., Kim, M., & Barrientos, J. (2007). Representational mode and cognitive load: Optimizing the instructional design of science simulations. Featured Research Paper presented at the annual convention of the Association for Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) in October, 2007 in Anaheim, CA.
114. Reijnen, E., Wallach, D., Stöcklin, M., Kassuba, T., & Opwis, K. (2007). Color similarity in visual search. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 66(4), 191-199.
115. Renkl, A. (2005). The worked-out examples principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 229-245). New York: Cambridge.
116. Renkl, A., Atkinson, R., Maier, U., & Staley, R. (2002). From example study to problem solving: Smooth transitions help learning. Journal of Experimental Education, 70, 293-315.
117. Rieber, L. P. (1989). A review of animation research in CBI. In Proceedings of selected research papers presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Educational Communication and Technology (pp. 370-389). Dallas, TX.
118. Rieber, L. P. (1990). Using computer animated graphics with science instruction with children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 135-140.
119. Rieber, L. P. (1991). Effects of visual grouping strategies of computer-animated presentations on selective attention in science. Educational Technology Research and Development, 39, 5-15.
120. Rieber, L. P. (1996). Animation as feedback in a computer-based simulation: Representation matters. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44, 5-22.
121. Rieber, L. P. (2005). Multimedia learning in games, simulations, and microworlds. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge.
122. Rieber, L. P., & Parmley, M. W. (1995). To teach or not to teach? Comparing the use of computer-based simulations in deductive versus inductive approaches to learning with adults in science. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 13(4), 359-374.
123. Rieber, L. P., Smith, M., Al-Ghafry, S., Strickland, B., Chu, G., & Spahi, F. (1996). The role of meaning in interpreting graphic textual feedback during a computer-based simulation. Computers Education, 27(1), 45-58.
124. Rieber, L. P., Tzeng, S., & Tribble, K. (2004). Discovery learning, representation, and explanation within a computer-based simulation: Finding the right mix. Learning and Instruction, 14, 307-323.
125. Schnotz, W. (2002). Commentary: Towards an integrated view of learning from text and visual displays. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 101-120.
126. Schnotz, W. (2005). An integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 49-70). New York: Cambridge.
127. Schnotz, W., & Bannert, M. (2003). Construction and interference in learning from multiple representation. Learning and Instruction, 13, 141-156.
128. Schnotz, W., Böckheler, J., & Grzondziel, H. (1999). Individual and co-operative learning with interactive animated pictures. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 14, 245-265.
129. Schnotz, W., & Kulhavy, R. W. (1994). Comprehension of graphics. Amsterdam, Netherlands: North-Holland/Elsevier Science Publishers.
130. Schnotz, W., & Rasch, T. (2005). Enabling, facilitating, and inhibiting effects of animations in multimedia learning: Why reduction of cognitive load can have negative results on learning. Educational Technology Research and Development. Special Issue: Research on Cognitive Load Theory and Its Design Implications for E-Learning, 53(3), 47-58.
131. Schwan, S., & Riempp, R. (2004). The cognitive benefits of interactive videos: Learning to tie nautical knots. Learning and Instruction, 14, 293-305.
132. Serences, J. T., & Yantis, S. (2006). Selective visual attention and perceptual coherence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(1), 38-45.
133. Seufert, T., & Brünken, R. (2006). Cognitive load and the format of instructional aids for coherence formation. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(3), 321-331.
134. Shah, P., & Carpenter, P. A. (1995). Conceptual limitations in comprehending line graphs. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124(1), 43-61.
135. Shah, P., & Hoeffner, J. (2002). Review of graph comprehension research: Implications for instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 47-69.
136. Stieff, M., & Wilensky, U. (2003). Connected chemistry: Incorporating interactive simulations into the chemistry curriculum. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 12, 285-302.
137. Swaak, J., & de Jong, T. (2001). Learner vs. system control in using online support for simulation-based discovery learning. Learning Environments Research, 4, 217-241.
138. Swaak, J., de Jong, T., & van Joolingen, W. R. (2004). The effects of discovery learning and expository instruction on the acquisition of definitional and intuitive knowledge. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20(4), 225-234.
139. Sweller, J. (1999). Instructional design. Camberwell, Vic: ACER Press.
140. Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 19-30). New York: Cambridge.
141. Sweller, J., Chandler, P., Tierney, P., & Cooper, M. (1990). Cognitive load as a factor in the structuring of technical material. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119(2), 176-192.
142. Tabbers, H., Martens, R., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004). Multimedia instructions and cognitive load theory: Effects of modality and cueing. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 71-81.
143. Tarmizi, R. A., & Sweller, J. (1988). Guidance during mathematical problem solving. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 424-436.
144. Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57(4), 247-262.
145. Um, E., Song, H., & Plass, J. L. (2007). The effect of positive emotions on multimedia learning. Paper presented at the World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia & Telecommunications (ED-MEDIA 2007) in Vancouver, Canada, June 25-29, 2007.
146. Ungerleider, L. G., & Mishkin, M. (1982). Two cortical visual systems. In D. G. Ingle, M. A. Goodale, & R. J. Q. Mansfield (Eds.), Analysis of visual behavior (pp. 549-586). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
147. van der Meij, J., & de Jong, T. (2004). Learning with multiple representations. Paper presented at the 2004 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA.
148. van der Meij, J., & de Jong, T. (2006). Supporting students' learning with multiple representations in a dynamic simulation-based learning environment. Learning and Instruction, 16, 199-212.
149. Weiss, R. E., Knowlton, D. S., & Morrison, G. R. (2002). Principles for using animation in computer-based instruction: Theoretical heuristics for effective design. Computers in Human Behavior, 18, 465-477.
150. White, B. Y., & Fredriksen, J. R. (1990). Causal model progression as a foundation for intelligent learning environments. Artificial Intelligence, 42, 99-157.
151. Willows, D. M., & Houghton, H. A. (Eds.). (1987). The psychology of illustration-Vol. I. Basic research. New York: Springer-Verlag.
152. Winn, W. (1994). Contributions of perceptual and cognitive processes to the comprehension of graphics. Amsterdam, Netherlands: North-Holland/Elsevier Science Publishers.
153. Winn, W., Li, T.-Z., & Schill, D. (1991). Diagrams as aids to problem solving: Their role in facilitating search and computation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(1), 17-29.
154. Wouters, P., Tabbers, H. K., & Paas, F. (2007). Interactivity in video-based models. Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 327-342.
155. Wu, H., Krajcik, J. S., & Soloway, E. (2001). Promoting understanding of chemical representations: Students' use of a visualization tool in the classroom. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38, 821-842.
156. Zhang, J., Chen, Q., Sun, Y., & Reid, D. J. (2004). Triple scheme of learning support design for scientific discovery learning based on computer simulation: Experimental research. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20(4), 269-282.