Acute bacterial meningitis in infants and children

The Lancet Infectious Diseases

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 32-42

  Kim, Kwang Sik ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE; AMPICILLIN; CEFEPIME; CEFOTAXIME; CEFTRIAXONE; CEPHALOSPORIN; DAPTOMYCIN; ERTAPENEM; GARENOXACIN; GATIFLOXACIN; GEMIFLOXACIN; GENTAMICIN; MEROPENEM; MOXIFLOXACIN; PENICILLIN G; RIFAMPICIN; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BACTERIAL MENINGITIS; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; HUMAN; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; CHILD; HUMANS; INFANT; MENINGITIS, BACTERIAL;

EID: 72149117409     PISSN: 14733099     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70306-8     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Klinger G., Chin C.N., Beyene J., and Perlman M. Predicting the outcome of neonatal bacterial meningitis. Pediatrics 106 (2000) 477-482
2. Stevens J.P., Eames M., Kent A., Halkets S., Holt D., and Harvey D. Long-term outcome of neonatal meningitis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 88 (2003) F179-F184
3. Chang C.J., Chang W.N., Huang L.T., et al. Bacterial meningitis in infants: the epidemiology, clinical features, and prognostic factors. Brain Dev 26 (2004) 168-175
4. de Louvois J., Halket S., and Harvey D. Neonatal meningitis in England and Wales: sequelae at 5 years of age. Eur J Pediatr 7 (2004) 730-734
5. Roine I., Pelyola H., Fernandez J., et al. Influence of admission findings on death and neurological outcome from childhood bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 46 (2008) 1248-1252
6. Arditi M., Mason Jr. E.O., Bradley J.S., et al. Three-year multicenter surveillance of pneumococcal meningitis in children: clinical characteristics, and outcome related to penicillin susceptibility and dexamethasone use. Pediatrics 102 (1998) 1087-1097
7. Kim K.S. Pathogenesis of bacterial meningitis: from bacteremia to neuronal injury. Nat Rev Neurosci 4 (2003) 376-385
8. Fothergill L.D., and Wright J. Influenzal meningitis: the relation of age incidence to the bactericidal power of blood against the causal organism. J Immunol 24 (1933) 273-284
9. Chudwin D.S., Wara D.W., Lameris-Martin N.B., and Ammann A.J. Effect of antibody concentration on opsonic requirements for phagocytosis in vitro of Streptococcus pneumoniae types 7 and 19. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 172 (1983) 178-186
10. Goldschneider I., Gotschlich E.C., and Artenstein M.S. Human immunity to the meningococcus. I. The role of humoral antibodies. J Exp Med 129 (1969) 1307-1326
11. Baker C.J., and Kasper D.L. Correlation of maternal antibody deficiency with susceptibility to neonatal group B streptococcal infection. N Engl J Med 294 (1976) 753-756
12. Schiff D.E., Wass C.A., Cryz Jr. S.J., Cross A.S., and Kim K.S. Estimation of protective levels of anti-O-specific lipopolysaccharide immunoglobulin G antibody against experimental Escherichia coli infection. Infect Immun 61 (1993) 974-980
13. Peltola H. Worldwide Haemophilus influenzae type b diseases at the beginning of the 21st century: global analysis of the disease burden 25 years after the use of the polysaccharide vaccine and a decade after the advent of conjugates. Clin Microbiol Rev 13 (2000) 302-317
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Progress toward elimination of Haemophilus influenza type b invasive disease among infants and children-United States, 1998-2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51 (2002) 234-237
15. Whitney C.G., Farley M.M., Hadler J., et al. Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccine. N Engl J Med 348 (2003) 1737-1746
16. Tsai C.J., Griffin M.R., Nuorti J.P., and Grijalva C.G. Changing epidemiology of pneumococcal meningitis after the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 46 (2008) 1664-1672
17. Hsu H.E., Shutt K.A., Moore M.R., et al. Effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on pneumococcal meningitis. N Engl J Med 360 (2009) 244-256
18. Borrow W.R., and Miller E. Long-term protection in children with meningococcal C conjugate vaccination: lessons learned. Expert Rev Vaccines 5 (2006) 851-857
19. Kim K.S. Mechanisms of microbial traversal of the blood-brain barrier. Nat Rev 6 (2008) 625-634
20. Berman P.H., and Banker B.Q. Neonatal meningitis. A clinical and pathological study of 29 cases. Pediatrics 38 (1966) 6-24
21. Ferrieri P., Burke B., and Nelson J. Production of bacteremia and meningitis in infant rats with group B streptococcal serotypes. Infect Immun 27 (1980) 1023-1032
22. Doran K.S., Engelson E.J., Khosravi A., et al. Blood-brain barrier invasion by group B streptococcus depends upon proper cell-surface anchoring of lipoteichoic acid. J Clin Invest 115 (2005) 2499-2507
23. Kim K.S., Itabashi H., Gemski P., Sadoff J., Warren R.L., and Cross A.S. The K1 capsule is the critical determinant in the development of Escherichia coli meningitis in the rat. J Clin Invest 90 (1992) 897-905
24. Rubin L.L., and Staddon J.M. The cell biology of the blood-brain barrier. Annu Rev Neurosci 22 (1999) 11-28
25. Huang S.H., Wass C.A., Fu Q., Prasadarao N.V., Stins M., and Kim K.S. E coli invasion of brain microvascular endothelial cells in vitro and in vivo: molecular cloning and characterization of E coli invasion gene ibe10. Infect Immun 63 (1995) 4470-4475
26. Stins M.F., Badger J.L., and Kim K.S. Bacterial invasion and transcytosis in transfected human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Microb Pathog 30 (2001) 19-28
27. Nizet V., Kim K.S., Stins M., Jonas M., Nguyen D., and Rubens C.E. Invasion of brain microvascular endothelial cells by group B streptococci. Infect Immun 65 (1997) 5074-5081
28. Ring A., Weiser J.N., and Tuomanen E.I. Pneumococcal trafficking across the blood-brain barrier. Molecular analysis of a novel bi-directional pathway. J Clin Invest 102 (1998) 347-360
29. Unkmeir A., Latsch K., Detrich G., et al. Fibronectin mediates Opc-dependent internalization of Neisseria meningitidis in human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Mol Microbiol 46 (2002) 933-946
30. Khan N.A., Shin S., Chung J.W., et al. Outer membrane protein A and cytotoxic necrotizing factor-1 use diverse signaling mechanisms for Escherichia coli K1 invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Microb Pathog 35 (2003) 35-42
31. Cabanes D., Sousa S., Cebria A., Lecuit M., Garcia-del Portillo F., and Cossart P. gp96 is a receptor for a novel Listeria monocytogenes virulence factor, Vip, a surface protein. EMBO J 24 (2005) 2827-2838
32. Kim K.J., Chung J.W., and Kim K.S. 67-kDa laminin receptor promotes internalization of cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1-expressing Escherichia coli K1 into human brain microvascular endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 280 (2005) 1360-1368
33. Orihuela C.J., Mahdavi J., Thornton J., et al. Laminin receptor initiates bacterial contact with the blood brain barrier in experimental meningitis models. J Clin Invest 119 (2009) 1638-1640
34. Gauczynski S., Peyrin J.M., Haik S., et al. The 37-kDa/67-kDa laminin receptor acts as the cell-surface receptor for the cellular prion protein. EMBO J 20 (2001) 5863-5875
35. Ludwig G.V., Kondig J.P., and Smith J.F. A putative receptor for Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from mosquito cells. J Virol 70 (1996) 5592-5599
36. Thepparit C., and Smith D.R. Serotype-specific entry of dengue virus into liver cells: identification of the 37-kilodalton/67-kilodalton high-affinity laminin receptor as a dengue virus serotype 1 receptor. J Virol 78 (2004) 12647-12656
37. Akache B., Grimm D., Pandey K., Yant S.R., Xu H., and Kay M.A. The 37/67-kilodalton laminin receptor is a receptor for adeno-associated virus serotypes 8, 2, 3, and 9. J Virol 80 (2006) 9831-9836
38. Tenenbaum T.T., Spellerberg B., Adam R., Vogel M., Kim K.S., and Schroten H. Streptococcus agalactiae invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells is promoted by the laminin-binding protein Lmb. Microbes Infect 9 (2007) 714-720
39. Cundell D.R., Gerard N.P., Gerard C., Idanpaan-Heikkila I., and Tuomanen E.I. Streptococcus pneumoniae anchor to activated human cells by the receptor for platelet-activating factor. Nature 377 (1995) 435-438
40. Weiser J.N., Pab N., McGowan K.L., Musher D., Martin A., and Richards J. Phosphorylcholine on the lipopolysaccharide of Haemophilus influenzae contributes to persistence in the respiratory tract and sensitivity to serum killing mediated by C-reactive protein. J Exp Med 187 (1998) 631-640
41. Biswas A.K., Hafiz A., Banjerjee B., Kim K.S., Datta K., and Chitnis C.E. Plasmodium falciparum uses gC1qR/HABP1/p32 as a receptor to bind to vascular endothelium and for platelet-mediated clumping. PLoS Pathogens 3 (2007) 1271-1280
42. Greiffenberg L., Goebel W., Kim K.S., and Kuhn M. Interaction of Listeria monocytogenes with human brain microvascular endothelial cells: InlB-dependent invasion, long-term intracellular growth and spread from macrophages to endothelial cells. Infect Immun 66 (1998) 5260-5267
43. Johansson L., Rytkonen A., Bergman P., et al. CD46 in meningococcal disease. Science 301 (2003) 373-375
44. Manchester M., Eto D.S., Valsamakis A., et al. Clinical isolates of measles virus use CD46 as a cellular receptor. J Virol 74 (2000) 3967-3974
45. Gaggar A., Shayakhmetov D.M., and Lieber A. CD46 is a cellular receptor for group B adenoviruses. Nat Med 9 (2003) 1408-1412
46. Santoro F., Greenstone H.L., Insinga A., et al. Interaction of glycoprotein H of human herpesvirus 6 with the cellular receptor CD46. J Biol Chem 278 (2003) 25964-25969
47. Teng C.H., Cai M., Shin S., et al. Escherichia coli K1 RS218 interacts with human brain microvascular endothelial cells via type 1 fimbria phase-on bacteria. Infect Immun 73 (2005) 2923-2931
48. Shin S., Lu G., Cai M., and Kim K.S. Escherichia coli outer membrane protein A adheres to human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 330 (2005) 1199-1204
49. Khan N.A., Kim Y., Shin S., and Kim K.S. FimH-mediated Escherichia coli K1 invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Cell Microbiol 9 (2007) 169-178
50. Huang S.H., Chen Y.H., Fu Q., et al. Identification and characterization of an Escherichia coli invasion gene locus, ibeB, required for penetration of brain microvascular endothelia cells. Infect Immun 67 (1999) 2103-2109
51. Wang Y., Huang S.H., Wass C., and Kim K.S. The gene locus yijP contributes to E. coli K1 invasion of brain microvascular endothelial cells. Infect Immun 67 (1999) 4751-4756
52. Khan N.A., Wang Y., Kim K.J., Chung J.W., Wass C.A., and Kim K.S. Cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 contributes to Escherichia coli K1 invasion of the central nervous system. J Biol Chem 277 (2002) 15607-15612
53. Chung J.W., Hong S.J., Kim K.J., et al. 37 kDa laminin receptor precursor modulates cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1-mediated RhoA activation and bacterial uptake. J Biol Chem 278 (2003) 16857-16862
54. Massia S.P., Rao S.S., and Hubbell J.A. Covalently immobilized laminin peptide Tyr-Ile-Gly-Ser-Arg (YIGSR) supports cell spreading and co-localization of the 67-kilodalton laminin receptor with alpha-actinin and vinculin. J Biol Chem 268 (1993) 8053-8059
55. Tenenbaum T., Bloier C., Adam R., Reinscheid D.J., and Schroten H. Adherence to and invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells are promoted by fibrinogen-binding protein FbsA of Streptococcus agalactiae. Infect Immun 73 (2005) 4404-4409
56. Maisey H.C., Hensler M., Nizet V., and Doran K.S. Group B streptococcal pilus proteins contribute to adherence to and invasion of brain microvascular endothelial cells. J Bacteriol 189 (2007) 1464-1467
57. Braun L., Ghebrehiwet B., and Cossart P. gC1q-R/p32, a C1q-binding protein is a receptor for the InlB invasion protein of Listeria monocytogenes. EMBO J 19 (2000) 1458-1466
58. Shen Y., Naujokas M., Park M., and Ireton K. InlB-dependent internalization of Listeria is mediated by the Met receptor tyrosine kinase. Cell 103 (2000) 501-510
59. Niemann H.H., Jager V., Butler P.J., et al. Structure of the human receptor tyrosine kinase Met in complex with the Listeria invasion protein InlB. Cell 130 (2007) 235-246
60. Drevets D.A., Leenen P.J., and Greenfield R.A. Invasion of the central nervous system by intracellular bacteria. Clin Microbiol Rev 17 (2004) 323-347
61. Join-Lambert O.F., Exine S., Le Monnier A., et al. Listeria monocytogenes-infected bone marrow myeloid cells promote bacterial invasion of the central nervous system. Cell Microbiol 7 (2005) 167-180
62. Radin J.N., Orihuela C.J., Murti G., Guglielmo C., Murray P.J., and Tuomanen E.I. β-Arrestin 1 participates in platelet-activating factor receptor-mediated endocytosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 73 (2005) 7827-7835
63. Plant L., Sundqvist J., Zughaier S., Lovkvist L., Stephens D.S., and Jonsson A.B. Lipooligosaccharide structure contributes to multiple steps in the virulence of Neisseria meningitidis. Infect Immun 74 (2006) 1360-1367
64. Kim K.S. Treatment strategies for central nervous system infections. Expert Opin Pharmacother 10 (2009) 1307-1317
65. Reddy M.A., Wass C.A., Kim K.S., Schlaepfer D.D., and Nemani P.V. Involvement of focal adhesion kinases in Escherichia coli invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Infect Immun 68 (2000) 6423-6430
66. Reddy M.A., Nemani P.V., Wass C.A., and Kim K.S. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activation and interaction with focal adhesion kinase in E coli K1 invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 275 (2000) 36769-36774
67. Shin S., and Kim K.S. RhoA and Rac1 contribute to type III group B streptococcal invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 345 (2006) 538-542
68. Sokolova O., Heppel N., Jägerhuber R., et al. Interaction of Neisseria meningitidis with human brain microvascular endothelial cells: role of MAP- and tyrosine kinases in invasion and inflammatory cytokine release. Cell Microbiol 6 (2004) 153-166
69. Das A., Asatryan L., Reddy M.A., et al. Differential role of cytosolic phospholipase A2 in the invasion of brain microvascular endothelial cells by Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes. J Infect Dis 184 (2001) 732-737
70. Galanakis E., Di Cello F., Paul-Satyaseela M., and Kim K.S. Escherichia coli K1 induces IL-8 expression in human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Eur Cytokine Netw 17 (2006) 260-265
71. Galiza E.P., and Heath P.T. Improving the outcome of neonatal meningitis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 22 (2009) 229-234
72. Levy M., Wong E., and Fried D. Diseases that mimic meningitis: analysis of 650 lumbar punctures. Clin Pediatr 29 (1990) 254-255 258-61.
73. Oostenbrink R., Moons K.G., Theunissen C.C., Derksen-Lubsen G., Grobbee D.E., and Moll H.A. Signs of meningeal irritation at the emergency department: how often bacterial meningitis?. Pediatr Emerg Care 17 (2001) 161-164
74. Valmari P., Peltola H., Ruuskanen O., and Korvenranta H. Childhood bacterial meningitis: initial symptoms and signs related to age, and reasons for consulting a physician. Eur J Pediatr 146 (1987) 515-518
75. La Scolea Jr. L.J., and Dryja D. Quantitation of bacteria in cerebrospinal fluid and blood of children with meningitis and its diagnostic significance. J Clin Microbiol 19 (1984) 187-190
76. Bingen E., Lambert-Zechovsky N., Mariani-Kurkdjian P., et al. Bacterial counts in cerebrospinal fluid of children with meningitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 9 (1990) 278-281
77. Mylonakis E., Hohmann E.L., and Calderwood S.B. Central nervous system infection with Listeria monocytogenes, 33 years' experience at a general hospital and review of 776 episodes from the literature. Medicine 77 (1998) 313-336
78. Gray L.D., and Fedorko D.P. Laboratory diagnosis of bacterial meningitis. Clin Microbiol Rev 5 (1992) 130-145
79. Shanholtzer C.J., Schaper P.J., and Peterson L.R. Concentrated Gram-stained smears prepared with a cytospin centrifuge. J Clin Microbiol 16 (1982) 1052-1056
80. Kanegaye J.T., Soliemanzadeh P., and Bradley J.S. Lumbar puncture in pediatric bacterial meningitis: defining the time interval for recovery of cerebrospinal fluid pathogens after parenteral antibiotic pretreatment. Pediatrics 108 (2001) 1169-1174
81. Suwanangool S., Eisenach K.D., Smith S.M., and Eng R.H. Detection of bacterial antigens in body fluids by the Phadebact system. Scand J Infect Dis 18 (1986) 347-352
82. Chiba N., Murayama S.Y., Morozumi M., et al. Rapid detection of eight causative pathogens for the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis by real-time PCR. J Infect Chemother 15 (2009) 92-98
83. Corless C.E., Guiver M., Borrow R., Edwards-Jones V., Fox A.J., and Kaczmarski E.B. Simultaneous detection of Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophillus influenza, and Streptococcus pneumonia in suspected cases of meningitis and septicemia using real-time PCR. J Clin Microbiol 39 (2001) 1553-1558
84. Schuurman T., de Boer R.F., Kooistra-Smid A.M., and van Zwet A.A. Prospective study of use of PCR amplification and sequencing of 16S ribosomal DNA from cerebrospinal fluid for diagnosis of bacterial meningitis in a clinical setting. J Clin Microbiol 42 (2004) 734-740
85. Lu J.J., Perng C.L., Lee S.Y., and Wan C.C. Use of PCR with universal primers and restriction endonuclease digestions for detection and identification of common bacterial pathogens in cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Microbiol 38 (2000) 2076-2080
86. Wu Y.-D., Chen L.-H., Wu X.-J., Shang S.-Q., Lou J.-T., and Du L.-Z. Gram stain-specific-probe-based real-time PCR for diagnosis and discrimination of bacterial neonatal sepsis. J Clin Microbiol 46 (2008) 2613-2619
87. Saha S.K., Darmstadt G.L., Baqui A.H., et al. Identification of serotype in culture negative pneumococcal meningitis using sequential multiplex PCR: implication for surveillance and vaccine design. PLoS ONE 3 (2008) e3576
88. Seki M., Yamashita Y., Torigoe H., Tsuda H., Sato S., and Maeno M. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification method targeting the lytA gene for detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Clin Microbiol 43 (2005) 1581-1586
89. Gill P., and Ghaemi A. Nucleic acid isothermal amplification technologies: a review. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids 27 (2008) 224-243
90. Ben R., Kung S., Chang F., Lu J., Feng N., and Hsieh Y. Rapid diagnosis of bacterial meningitis using a microarray. J Formos Med Assoc 107 (2008) 448-453
91. Wu L., Wang Q., Li Y., et al. Use of a serotype-specific DNA microarray for identification of group B streptococcus. J Clin Microbiol 44 (2006) 1447-1452
92. Korczak B., Frey J., Schrenzel J., et al. Use of diagnostic microarrays for determination of virulence gene patterns of Escherichia coli K1, a major cause of neonatal meningitis. J Clin Microbiol 43 (2005) 1024-1031
93. Saha S.K., Darmstadt G.L., Yamanaka N., et al. Rapid diagnosis of pneumococcal meningitis: implications for treatment and measuring disease burden. Pediatr Infect Dis J 24 (2005) 1093-1098
94. Nigrovic L.E., Kuppermann N., Macias C.G., et al. Clinical prediction rule for identifying children with cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis at very low risk of bacterial meningitis. JAMA 297 (2007) 52-60
95. Dubos F., De La Rocque F., Levy C., et al. Sensitivity of the bacterial meningitis score in 889 children with bacterial meningitis. J Pediatr 152 (2008) 378-382
96. Tunkel A.R., Hartman B.J., Kaplan S.L., et al. Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 39 (2004) 1267-1284
97. Chaudhuri A., Martinez-Martin P., Kennedy P.G., et al. EFNS guideline on the management of community-acquired bacterial meningitis: report of an EFNS task force on acute bacterial meningitis in older children and adults. Eur J Neurol 15 (2008) 649-659
98. Aronin S.I., Pedruzzi P., and Quagliarello V.J. Community-acquired meningitis: risk stratification for adverse outcome and effect of antibiotic timing. Ann Intern Med 129 (1998) 862-869
99. Miner J.R., Heegaard W., Mapes A., and Biros M. Presentation, time to antibiotics, and mortality of patients with bacterial meningitis at an urban county medical center. J Emerg Med 21 (2001) 387-392
100. Proulx N., Frechette D., Toye B., Chan J., and Kravcik S. Delays in the administration of antibiotics are associated with mortality from adult acute bacterial meningitis. QJM 98 (2005) 291-298
101. Auburtin M., Wolff M., Charpentier J., et al. Detrimental role of delayed antibiotic administration and penicillin-nonsusceptible strains in adult intensive care unit patients with pneumococcal meningitis: the PNEUMOREA prospective multicenter study. Crit Care Med 34 (2006) 2758-2765
102. Sinner S.W., and Tunkel A.R. Antimicrobial agents in the treatment of bacterial meningitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 18 (2004) 581-602
103. Löscher W., and Potschka H. Role of drug efflux transporters in the brain for drug disposition and treatment of brain diseases. Prog Neurobiol 76 (2005) 22-76
104. Ahmed A., Jafri H., Lutsari I., et al. Pharmacodynamics of vancomycin for the treatment of experimental penicillin-and cephalosporin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43 (1999) 876-881
105. John C.C. Treatment failure with use of a third-generation cephalosporin for penicillin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 18 (1994) 188-193
106. Andes D.R., and Craig W.A. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antibiotics in meningitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 13 (1999) 595-618
107. McGeary S.A., Kim K.S., and Ward J.I. Susceptibility of group B streptococcus to beta-lactam antibiotics. Drugs Exp Clin Res 10 (1983) 693-696
108. Kim K.S. Antimicrobial susceptibility of group B streptococci. In: Christensen K.K., Christensen P., and Ferrieri P. (Eds). Antibiotics and chemotherapy: neonatal group B streptococcal infections (1985), S Karger AG, Basel 83-89
109. Kimura K., Suzuki S., Wachino J.I., et al. First molecular characterization of group B streptococci with reduced penicillin susceptibility. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 52 (2008) 2890-2897
110. Dahesh S., Hensler M.E., Van Sorge N.M., et al. Point mutation in the group B streptococcal pbp2x gene conferring decreased susceptibility to β-lactam antibiotics. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 52 (2008) 2915-2918
111. Turner P.C., Southern K.W., Spencer N.J.B., and Pullen H. Treatment failure in meningococcal meningitis. Lancet 335 (1990) 732-733
112. Casado-Flores J., Osona B., Domingo P., and Barquet N. Meningococcal meningitis during penicillin therapy for meningococcemia. Clin Infect Dis 25 (1997) 1479
113. Latorre C., Gene A., Juncosa T., Munoz C., and Gonzalez-Cuevas A. Neisseria meningitidis: evolution of penicillin resistance and phenotype in a children's hospital in Barcelona, Spain. Acta Paediatr 89 (2000) 661-665
114. Jackson L.A., Tenover F.C., Baker C., et al. Prevalence of Neisseria meningitidis relatively resistant to penicillin in the United States, 1991. J Infect Dis 169 (1994) 438-441
115. Hedberg S.T., Fredlund H., Nicolas P., Caugant D.A., Olcen P., and Unemo M. Antibiotic susceptibility and characteristics of Neisseria meningitidis isolates from the African meningitis belt, 2000 to 2006: phenotypic and genotypic perspectives. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53 (2009) 1561-1566
116. Gerber C.M., Cottagnoud M., Neftel K.A., Tauber M.G., and Cottagnoud P. Meropenem alone and in combination with vancomycin in experimental meningitis caused by a penicillin-resistant pneumococcal strain. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 18 (1999) 866-870
117. Cottagnoud P., Acosta F., Cottagnoud M., and Tauber M.G. Cefepime is efficacious against penicillin- and quinolone-resistant pneumococci in experimental meningitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 49 (2002) 327-330
118. Cottagnoud P., Pfister M., Cottagnoud M., Acosta F., and Tauber M.G. Activities of ertapenem, a new long-acting carbapenem, against penicillin-sensitive or -resistant pneumococci in experimental meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 (2003) 1943-1947
119. Schmidt H., Dalhoff A., Stuertz K., et al. Moxifloxacin in the therapy of experimental pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 42 (1998) 1397-1407
120. Lutsari I., Friedland I.R., Wubbel L., et al. Pharmacodynamics of gatifloxacin in cerebrospinal fluid in experimental cephalosporin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 42 (1998) 2650-2655
121. Smirnov A., Wellmer A., Gerber J., Maier K., Henne S., and Nau R. Gemifloxacin is effective in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44 (2000) 767-770
122. Rodriguez-Cerrato V., Ghaffar F., Saavedra J., et al. BMS-284756 in experimental cephalosporin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45 (2001) 3098-3103
123. Grandgirard D., Schurch C., Cottagnoud P., and Leib S.L. Prevention of brain injury by the nonbacteriolytic antibiotic daptomycin in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51 (2007) 2173-2178
124. Rodriguez-Cerrato V., McCoig C.C., Saavedra J., et al. Garenoxacin (BMS-284756) and moxifloxacin in experimental meningitis caused by vancomycin-tolerant pneumococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 (2003) 211-215
125. Grady R.W. Systemic quinolone antibiotics in children: a review of the use and safety. Expert Opin Drug Saf 4 (2005) 523-630
126. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Postnatal causes of developmental disabilities in children aged 3-10 years, Atlanta, Georgia, 1991. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 45 (1996) 130-134
127. Andersen J., Backer V., Voldsgaard P., Shinhoj P., and Wandall J.H. Acute meningococcal meningitis: analysis of features of the disease according to the age of 255 patients. J Infect 34 (1997) 227-235
128. Van De Beek D., De Gans J., McIntyre P., and Prasad K. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1 (2007) CD004405.
129. McIntyre P.B., Berkey C.S., King S.M., et al. Dexamethasone as adjunctive therapy in bacterial meningitis. A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials since 1988. JAMA 278 (1997) 925-931
130. American Academy of Pediatrics. Pneumococcal infections. In: Pickering L.K. (Ed). Red book: 2009 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 28th edn. (2009), American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL 524-535
131. Brady M.T., Kaplan S.L., and Taber L.H. Association between persistence of pneumococcal meningitis and dexamethasone administration. J Pediatr 99 (1981) 924-926
132. Klugman K.P., Friedland I.R., and Bradley J.S. Bactericidal activity against cephalosporin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in cerebrospinal fluid of children with acute bacterial meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 39 (1995) 1988-1992
133. Leib S.L., Heimgartner C., Bifrare Y.D., Loeffler J.M., and Tauber M.G. Dexamethasone aggravates hippocampal apoptosis and learning deficiency in pneumococcal meningitis in infant rats. Pediatr Res 54 (2003) 353-357
134. Spreer A., Gerber J., Hanssen M., et al. Dexamethasone increases hippocampal neuronal apoptosis in a rabbit model of Escherichia coli meningitis. Pediatr Res 60 (2006) 210-215
135. Peltola H., Roine I., Fernandez J., et al. Adjuvant glycerol and/or dexamethasone to improve the outcomes of childhood bacterial meningitis: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 45 (2007) 1277-1286