Worldwide Haemophilus influenzae type b disease at the beginning of the 21st century: Global analysis of the disease burden 25 years after the use of the polysaccharide vaccine and a decade after the advent of conjugates

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 13, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 302-317

  Peltola, Heikki ^a  

^a HELSINKI UNIVERSITY CENTRAL HOSPITAL   (Finland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

POLYSACCHARIDE VACCINE;

DISEASE MARKER; EPIGLOTTITIS; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE TYPE B; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INFLUENZA; INFLUENZA VACCINATION; MENINGITIS; MORTALITY; PNEUMONIA; REVIEW;

CHILD, PRESCHOOL; HAEMOPHILUS INFECTIONS; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE TYPE B; HAEMOPHILUS VACCINES; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; POLYSACCHARIDES, BACTERIAL; VACCINATION; VACCINES, CONJUGATE; WORLD HEALTH;

HAEMOPHILUS; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE SEROTYPE B; NEGIBACTERIA;

EID: 0034076466     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.13.2.302-317.2000     Document Type: Review

References (200)

1. Adams, W. G., K. A. Deaver, S. L. Cochi, B. D. Plikaytis, E. R. Zell, C. V. Broome, and J. D. Wenger. 1993. Decline of childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hih) disease in the Hib vaccine era. JAMA 269:221-226.
2. Adegbola, R. A., E. K. Mulholland, A. G. Falade, O. Secka, R. Njai-Sarge, T. Corrah, A. Palmer, G. Schneider, and B. M. Greenwood. 1996. Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in the Western Region of The Gambia: background surveillance for a vaccire efficacy trial. Ann. Trop. Paediatr. 16:103-111.
3. Adegbola, R. A., A. G. Falade, B. E. Sam, M. Aidoo, I. Baldeh, D. Hazlett, H. Whittle, B. M. Greenwood, and E, K. Mulholland. 1994. The etiology of pneumonia in malnourished and well-nourished Gambian children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 13:975-982.
4. Reference deleted.
5. Alphen, L. van, L. Spanjaard, A. van der Ende, I. Schuuman, and J. Dankert. 1997. Effect of nationwide vaccination of 3-month-old infants in The Netherlands with conjugate Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine: high efficacy and lack of herd immunity. J. Pediatr. 131:869-873.
6. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases. 1985. Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide vaccine. Pediatrics 76:322-324.
7. Anderson, P. 1983. Antibody responses to Haemophilus influenzae type b and diphtheria toxin induced by conjugates of oligosaccharides of the type b capsule with the nontoxic protein CRM197. Infect. Immun. 39:233-238.
8. Anderson, P., G. Peter, R. B. Johnston, Jr., L. H. Wetterlow, and D. H. Smith. 1972. Immunization of humans with polyribophosphate, the capsular antigen of Haemophilus influenzae, type b. J. Clin. Investig. 51:39-44.
9. Avery, O. T., and W. F. Goebel. 1929. Chemo-immunological studies on conjugated carbohydrate proteins. II. Immunological specificity of synthetic sugar-protein antigens. J. Exp. Med. 50:533-550.
10. Banfi, A., M. T. Valenzuela B., and R. Lagos Z. 1999. Vacuna anti-H. influenzae b: impacto epidemiológico en Chile. Rev. Infect. Chil. 16(Suppl. 1):56-63.
11. Benoist, A. C. de, E. Laurent, and V. Goulet. 1999. Infections invasives à Haemophilus influenzae, Listeria monocytogenes, méningocoque, pneumocoque, streptocoques groupe A et groupe B en France en 1997 - évolution 1991-1997. Bull. Épidémiol. Hebdom. 15:57-59.
12. Berg, S., B. Trollfors, O. Nylén, S. Hugosson, K. Prellner, and C. Carenfelt. 1996. Incidence, aetiology, and prognosis of acute epiglottitis in children and adults in Sweden. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 28:261-264.
13. Bijlmer, H. A. 1991. World-wide epidemiology of Haemophilus influenzae meningitis: industrialized versus non-industrialized countries. Vaccine 9(Suppl.):S5-S9.
14. Bijlmer, H. A., and L. van Alphen. 1992. A prospective, population-based study on Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis in The Gambia and the possible consequences. J. Infect. Dis. 165:S29-S32.
15. Bisgard, K. M., A. Kao, J. Leake, P. M. Strebel, B. A. Perkins, and M. Wharton. 1998. Haemophilus influenzae invasive disease in the United States, 1994-1995: near disappearance of a vaccine-preventable childhood disease. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 4:229-237.
16. Black, S. B., H. R. Shinefield, R. A. Hiatt, B. H. Fireman, and the Northern California Kaiser Permanente Vaccine Study Center Pediatrics Group. 1988. Efficacy of Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine: an analysis after 1 year of marketing. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 7:149-156.
17. Black, S. B., H. E. Shinefleld, B. Fireman, R. Hiatt, M. Polen, E. Vittinghof, and the Northern California Kaiser Permanente Vaccine Study Center Pediatrics Group. 1991. Efficacy in infancy of oligosaccharide conjugate Haemophilus influenzae type b (HbOC) vaccine in a United States population of 61,080 children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 10:97-104.
18. Boehme, C., L. Soto, G. Rodríguez, J. Serra, V. Illesca, and P. Reydet. 1993. Tres años de meningitis bacteriana en servicio de pediatría del Hospital Regional de Temuco. Rev. Med. Chile 121:6633-6638.
19. Boletim Epidemiologico de Curitiba. 1997. Comportamento epidemiológico da meningite por Haemophilus influenzae B antes e após a introduçâo da vacina anti-Haemophilus influenzae B no calendário de imunizaçôes de rotina no município de Curitiba. Bol. Epidemiol. Curitiba 9:2-3.
20. Booy, R., S. Hodgson, L. Carpenter, R. T. Mayon-White, M. P. Slack, J. A. Macfarlane, E. A. Haworth, M. Kiddle, S. Shribman, J. St. Clair Roberts, and E. R. Moxon. 1994. Efficacy of Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine PRP-T. Lancet 344:362-366.
21. Booy, R., P. T. Heath, M. P. E. Slack, N. Begg, and E. R. Moxon. 1997. Vaccine failures after primary immunisation with Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine without booster. Lancet 349:1197-1202.
22. Bos, E., M. T. Vu, E. Massiah, and R. A. Bulatao. 1994. Estimates and projections with related demographic statistics. World population projections, 1994-1995 ed. The World Bank. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, Md.
23. Reference deleted.
24. Broadhurst, L. E., R. L. Erickson, and P. W. Kelley. 1991. Decreases in invasive Haemophilus influenzae diseases in US Army children, 1984 through 1991. JAMA 269:227-231.
25. Broome, C. V. 1987. Epidemiology of Haemophilus influenzae type b infections in the United States. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 6:779-782.
26. Bryan, J. P., H. R. Silva, A. dem Tavares, H. Rocha, and W. M. Scheld. 1990. Etiology and mortality of bacterial meningitis in northeastern Brazil. Rev. Infect. Dis. 12:128-135.
27. Cadoz, M., F. Denis, and I. Diop Mar. 1981. Etude épidemiologique des cas de méningites purulentes hospitalises à Dakar pendant la decennie 1970-1979. Bull. W. H. O. 59:575-584.
28. Canada Diseases Weekly Report. 1986. Statement on Haemophilus b polysaccharide vaccine. Can. Dis. Weekly Rep. 12:33-35.
29. Caro-Cassali, M., A. Vargas-Campos, Mohs-Villalta, and A. Arguedas-Mohs. 1995. Enfermedad sistémica por Haemophilus influenzae tipo b en el Hospital Nacional de Niños, un año después de la introducción de la vacuna conjugada. Bol. Med. Hosp. Infant. Mex. 52:426-430.
30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1998. Progress toward elimination of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease among infants and children - United States, 1987-1997. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 47:993-998.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1994. Progress toward elimination of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease among infants and children - United States, 1987-1993. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 43:144-148.
32. Children's Vaccine Initiative. 1999. Vaccination news. Haemophilus influenzae. Hib use rising . . . slowly. Newswatch 1:7-8.
33. Chu, C., R. Schneerson, J. B. Robbins, and S. C. Rastorgi. 1983. Further studies on the immunogenicity of Haemophilus influenzae type b and pneumococcal type 6A polysaccharide-protein conjugates. Infect. Immun. 40: 245-246.
34. Claesson, B., B. Trollfors, B. Ekström-Jodal, P.-H. Jeppson, T. Lagergård, O. Nylén, and P. Rignér. 1984. Incidence and prognosis of acute epiglottitis in children in a Swedish region. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 3:534-538.
35. Clements, D. A., R. Booy, R. Dagan, G. L. Gilbert, E. R. Moxon, M. P. Slack, A. Takala, H. P. Zimmerman, P. L. Zuber, and J. Eskola. 1993. Comparison of the epidemiology and cost of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in five western countries. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 12:362-367.
36. Cochi, S. L., C. V. Broome, and A. W. Hightower. 1985. Immunization of US children with Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide vaccine: a cost-effective model of strategy assessment. JAMA 253:521-529.
37. Cochi, S. L., D. W. Fleming, A. W. Hightower, K. Limpakarnjanarat, R. R. Facklam, J. D. Smith, R. K. Sikes, and C. V. Broome. 1986. Primary invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease: a population-based assessment of risk factors. J. Pediatr. 108:887-896.
38. Cochi, S. L., D. O'Mara, and S. R. Preblud. 1988. Progress in Haemophilus, type b polysaccharide vaccine use in the United States. Pediatrics 81:166-168.
39. Reference deleted.
40. Crisel, R. M., R. S. Baker, and D. E. Dorman. 1975. Capsular polymer of Haemophilus influenzae, type b. I. Structural characterization of the capsular polymer of strain Eagan. J. Biol. Chem. 250:4926-4930.
41. Dagan, R., and the Israeli Pediatric Bacteremia and Meningitis Group. 1992. A two-year prospective, nationwide study to determine the epidemiology and impact of invasive childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b infection in Israel. Clin. Infect. Dis. 15:720-725.
42. Dagan, R., D. Fraser, P. Slater, Z. Greif, N. Keller, M. Kaufstein, G. Shazberg, M. Schlesinger, and The Israeli Pediatric Bacteremia and Meningitis Group. 1998. A nationwide prospective surveillance study in Israel to document pediatric invasive infections, with an emphasis on invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b infections. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17:S198-S203.
43. Dajani, A. S., B. I. Asmar, and M. C. Thirumoorthi. 1979. Systemic Haemophilus influenzae disease: an overview. J. Pediatr. 94:355-364.
44. Decker, M. D., K. M. Edwards, R. Bradley, and P. Palmer. 1992. Comparative trial in infants of four conjugate Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines. J. Pediatr. 120:184-189.
45. Deivanayagam, N., T. P. Ashok, K. Nedunchelian, S. Shaffi Ahamed, and N. Mala. 1993. Bacterial meningitis: diagnosis by latex agglutination test and clinical features. Indian Pediatr. 30:495-500.
46. Demina, A. A. 1998. Epidemiology of invasive infections caused by H. influenzae type b. Int. Med. J. 2:315-322. (In Russian.)
47. Desgrandchamps, D., R. Schmid, H. P. Zimmermann, P. Imahorn, K. Kabus, and G. Schubiger. 1994. Auswirkung der konjugiertern RP-Impf-Stoffe auf die Inzidenz invasiver Erkrankungen durch Haemophilus influenzae Typ b im Kindesalter. Schweiz. Med. Wochenschr. 124:575-582.
48. Diomina, A. A., L. V. Spirikhina, I. S. Koroliova, and M. O. Volkova. 1999. Childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis in Russia. Eur. J. Pediatr. 158:85.
49. Eskola, J., H. Peltola, A. K. Takala, H. Käyhty, M. Hakulinen, V. Karanko, E. Kela P. Rekola, P. R. Rönnberg, J. S. Samuelson, L. K. Gordon, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1987. Efficacy of Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide-diphtheria toxoid conjugate vaccine in infancy. N. Engl. J. Med. 317: 717-722.
50. Eskola, J., H. Käyhty, A. K. Takala, H. Peltola, P. R. Rönnberg, E. Kela, E. Pekkanen, P. H. McVerry, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1990. A randomized, prospective field trial of a conjugate vaccine in the protection of infants and young children against invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 323:1381-1387.
51. Eskola, J., R.-M. Ölander, T. Hovi, L. Litmanen, S. Peltola, and H. Käyhty. 1997. Randomised trial of the effect of co-administration with acellular pertussis DTP vaccine on immunogenicity of Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine. Lancet 348:1688-1692.
52. Eskola, J., J. Ward, R. Dagan, D. Goldblatt, F. Zepp, and C. A. Siegrist. 1999. Combined vaccination of Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate and diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis containing acellular pertussis. Lancet 354: 2063-2068.
53. Exan, R. J. van. 1986. Haemophilus influenzae disease in Canada. A disease model for evaluating vaccine programs. Connaught Laboratories Ltd., Willowdale, Ontario, Canada.
54. Farley, M. M., D. S. Stephens, R. C. Harvey, R. K. Sikes, J. D. Wenger, and the CDC Meningitis Surveillance Group. 1992. Incidence and clinical characteristics of invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease in adults. J. Infect. Dis. 165:S42-S43.
55. Feklisova, L., V. Shebekova, A. Demina, L. V. Spirikhina, S. Bylinkina, I. Samsonova, and A. Gracheva. 1998. Pneumonia in children caused by H. influenzae type b and pneumococcus. Vrach. Del. 5:34-35. (In Russian.)
56. Ferreccio, C., E. Ortiz, L. Astroza, C. Rivera, J. Clemens, and M. M. Levine. 1990. A population based retrospective assessment of the disease burden resulting from invasive Haemophilus influenzae in infants and young children in Santiago, Chile. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 9:488-494.
57. Ferreira, O. S., and M. R. Carvalho da C. 1980. Estudo comparativo entre os resultados das culturas do material colhido pela "swab" faringeo e pela puncao pulmonar, em 58 crianças portados de pneumonia aguda. J. Pediatr. 48:211.
58. Fogarty, J. 1996. Moving towards elimination of Hib disease in Ireland. Forum 12:S3-S4.
59. Fortnum, H. M. 1992. Hearing impairment after bacterial meningitis: a review. Arch. Dis. Child. 67:1128-1133.
60. Fuji, R., M. Hiraiwa, C. Nonaka, and Y. Kobayashi. 1987. The trend of childhood bacterial meningitis in Japan (1979-1984). 1. On the causative organisms. J. Jpn. Assoc. Infect. Dis. 60:592-601. (In Japanese.)
61. Galil, K., R. Singleton, O. S. Levine, M. A. Fitzgerald, L. Bulkow, M. Getty, B. A. Perkinson, and A. Parkinson. 1999. Reemergence of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in a well-vaccinated population in remote Alaska. J. Infect. Dis. 179:101-106.
62. Garpenholt, Ö., S.-A. Silfverdal, S. Hugosson, H. Fredlund, L. Bodin, V. Romanus, and P. Olcén. 1996. The impact of Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccination in Sweden. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 28:165-169.
63. Gellin, B., and S. L. Katz. 1994. Putting a stop to a serial killer: measles. J. Infect. Dis. 170:S1-S2.
64. Gervaix, A., and S. Suter. 1991. Epidemiology of invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b infections in Geneva, Switzerland, 1976 to 1989. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 10:370-374.
65. Gilbert, G. L., D. A. Clements+, and S. J. Broughton. 1990. Haemophilus influenzae type b infections in Victoria, Australia, 1985 to 1987. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 9:252-257.
66. Reference deleted.
67. Gordon, L. K. 1984. Characterization of a hapten-carrier conjugate vaccine: H. influenzae diphtheria conjugate vaccine, p. 393-396. In R. M. Chanock and R. A. Lerner (ed.), Modern approaches to vaccines. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
68. Granoff, D. M., and M. Basden. 1980. Haemophilus influenzae infections in Fresno County, California: a prospective study of the effects of age, race, and contact with a case on incidence of disease. J. Infect. Dis. 141:40-46.
69. Gratten, M., and J. Montgomery. 1991. The bacteriology of acute pneumonia and meningitis in children in Papua New Guinea: assumptions, facts and technical strategies. Papua New Guinea Med. J. 34:185-198.
70. Greenwood, B. M. 1992. Epidemiology of acute lower respiratory tract infections, especially those due to Haemophilus influenzae type b, in The Gambia, West Africa. J. Infect. Dis. 165:S26-S28.
71. Grimwood, K., V. A. Anderson, L. Bond, C. Catroppa, R. L. Hore, E. H. Keir, T. Nolan, and D. M. Roberton. 1995. Adverse outcomes of bacterial meningitis in school-age survivors. Pediatrics 95:646-656.
72. Hammond, G. W., B. E. Rutherford, R. Malazdrewicz, N. MacFarlane, N. Pillay, R. B. Tate, L. E. Nicolle, B. D. Postl, and H. G. Stiver. 1988. Haemophilus influenzae meningitis in Manitoba and the Keewatin District, NWT: potential for mass vaccination. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 139:743-747.
73. Hanna, J. 1990. The epidemiology of invasive Haemophilus influenzae infections in children under five years of age in the Northern Territory: a three year study. Med. J. Aust. 152:234-240.
74. Hanna, J. N., and B. E. Wild. 1991. Bacterial meningitis in children under five years of age in Western Australia. Med. J. Aust. 155:160-164.
75. Hansman, D., J. Hanna, and F. Morey. 1986. High prevalence of invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease in central Australia, 1986. Lancet ii:927.
76. Hargreaves, R. M., M. P. E. Slack, A. J. Howard, E. Anderson, and M. E. Ramsay. 1996. Changing patterns of invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease in England and Wales after introduction of the Hib vaccination programme. Br. Med. J. 312:160-161.
77. Harrison, L. H., C. V. Broome, A. W. Hightower, C. C. Hoppe, S. Makintubee, S. L. Sitze, J. A. Taylor, S. Gaventa, J. D. Wenger, and R. R. Facklam. 1988. A day care-based study of the efficacy of Haemophilus b polysaccharide vaccine. JAMA 260:1413-1418.
78. Harrison, L. H., C. V. Broome, A. W. Hightower, and the Haemophilus Vaccine Efficacy Study Group. 1989. Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide vaccine: an efficacy study. Pediatrics 84:255-261.
79. Health Council of the Netherlands. 1991. Vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b. Publication 1991/14. Ministry and State Secretary of Welfare, Health and Cultural Affairs, The Hague, Netherlands.
80. Herrera, P. L., I. L. Prenzell, and S. V. Topelberg. 1983. Infecciones graves por Haemophilus influenzae (IGHI) en el niño. I. Aspectos generales y espectro clìnico. Rev. Med. Chile 111:808-814.
81. Reference deleted.
82. Hugosson, S., S. A. Silfverdal, Ö. Garpenholt, E. Esbjörner, B. Lindquist, T. Vikerfors, B. Werner, and P. Olcén. 1995. Invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease: epidemiology and clinical spectrum before large-scale H. influenzae type b vaccination. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 27:63-67.
83. Hussey, G., J. Hitchcock, H. Schaaf, G. Coetzee, D. Hanslo, E. van Schalkwyk, J. Pitout, J. Clausen, and W. van der Horst. 1994. Epidemiology of invasive Haemophilus influenzae infections in Cape Town, South Africa. Ann. Trop. Paediatr. 14:97-103.
84. Reference deleted.
85. Immunization Monitoring Program, Active (IMPACT) of the Canadian Paediatric Society and the Laboratory Centre for Disease Control. 1996. Haemophilus influenzae type b infection in Canada. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 154:1041-1047.
86. Immunization Practices Advisory Committee. 1991. Haemophilus b conjugate vaccines for prevention of Haemophilus influenzae type b diseases among infants and children two months of age and older. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 40:1-7.
87. Isenberg, H. 1990. Haemophilus-Erkrankungen: der neue Impfstoff "HibVaccinol." Soz. Paediatr. Prax. Klin. 12:628-634.
88. Ismail Hussain, I. H. M. 1998. Haemophilus influenzae meningitis in Malaysia. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17:S189-S190.
89. John, T. J., T. Cherian, and P. Ragltupathy. 1998. Haemophilus influenzae disease in children in India: a hospital perspective. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17:S169-S171.
90. Jónsdóttir, K. E., H. Hansen, H. Gudbjörnsdottir, M. Gudmundsdottir, Ó. Ólafsson, M. Jónasson, W. Schaart, and L. Barreto. 1994. Epidemiology of invasive Haemophilus influenzae b (Hib) disease in Iceland from 1974 and impact of vaccination programme launched in 1989. Arct. Med. Res. 53(Suppl. 2):619-621.
91. Jónsdóttir, K. E., Ó. Steingrimsson, and Ó. Ólafsson. 1992. Immunisation in Iceland against Haemophilus influenzae type b. Lancet 340:252-253.
92. Käyhty, H., V. Karanko, H. Peltola, and P.-H. Mäkelä. 1984. Serum antibodies after vaccination with Haemophilus influenzae type b capsular polysaccharide and responses to reimmunization: no evidence of immunologic tolerance or memory. Pediatrics 74:857-865.
93. Käyhty, H., H. Peltola, and J. Eskola. 1988. Immunogenicity and reactogenicity of four Haemophilus influenzae type b capsular polysaccharide vaccines in Finnish 24-month-old children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 7:574-577.
94. Käyhty, H., H. Peltola, V. Karanko, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1983. The protective level of serum antibodies to the capsular polysaccharide of Haemophilus influenzae type b. J. Infect. Dis. 147:1100.
95. Khan, N. Z., H. Kalter, M. Hanif, J. Schillinger, S. K. Saha, and R. E. Black. 1995. Meningitis treatment without follow-up: what are we missing? Lancet 346:706.
96. Kilpi, T., H. Peltola, T. Jauhiainen, M. J. T. Kallio, and the Finnish Study Group. 1995. Oral glycerol and intravenous dexamethasone in preventing neurologic and audiologic sequelae of childhood bacterial meningitis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 14:270-278.
97. Kim, K. H., Y. M. Sohn, J. H. Kang, K. N. Kim, D. S. Kim, J. H. Kim, C. H. Kim, Y. K. Shin, S. H. Oh, H. J. Lee, S. H. Cha, Y. J. Hong, and K. C. Sohn. 1998. The causative organisms of bacterial meningitis in Korean children, 1986-1995. J. Korean Med. Sci. 13:60-64.
98. Kreidl, P. von, B. Sölder, H. Fischer, I. Mohsenipur, E. Schmutzhard, F. Allerberger, and M. P. Dierich. 1997. Haemophilus influenzae-Meningitis in Tirol und Vorarlberg vor und nach Einführung der Impfung gegen Haemophilus influenzae Typ b. Mitt. Oesterr. Sanitaetsverwalt. 98:287-289.
99. Kristensen, K., K. Kaaber, T. Rønue, S. O. Larsen, and J. Henrichsen. 1990. Epidemiology of Haemophilus influenzae type b infections among children in Denmark in 1985 and 1986. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 79:587-592.
100. Kurikka, S., H. Käyhty, H. Peltola, L. Saarinen, J. Eskola, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1995. Neonatal immunization: response to Haemophilus influenzae type b-tetanus toxoid vaccine. Pediatrics 95:815-822.
101. Lagos, R., I. Horwitz, J. Toro, O. San Martin, P. Abrego, C. Bustamante, S. S. Wasserman, O. S. Levine, and M. M. Levine. 1996. Large scale, postlicensure, selective vaccination of Chilean infants with PRP-T conjugate vaccine: practicality and effectiveness in preventing invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b infections. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 15:216-222.
102. Lagos, R., M. T. Valenzuela, O. S. Levine, G. A. Losonsky, A. Erazo, S. S. Wasserman, and M. M. Levine. 1998. Economisation of vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b: a randomised trial of immunogenicity of fractional-dose and two-dose regimens. Lancet 351:1472-1476.
103. Lau, Y. L., L. S. K. Low, R. Yung, K. W. Ng, C. W. Leung, W. H. Lee, A. Ho, and S. J. Oppenheimer. 1995. Invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b infections in children hospitalized in Hong Kong, 1986-1990. Acta Paediatr. 84:173-176.
104. Lebel, M. H., B. J. Freij, G. A. Syrogiannopoulos, D. F. Chrane, M. J. Hoyt, S. M. Stewart, B. D. Kennard, K. D. Olsen, and G. H. McCracken, Jr. 1988. Dexamethasone therapy for bacterial meningitis. Results of two double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. N. Engl. J. Med. 319:964-971.
105. Lee, H. J. 1998. Epidemiology of systemic Haemophilus influenzae disease in Korean children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17:S185-S189.
106. Lehmann, D. 1992. Epidemiology of acute respiratory tract infections, especially those due to Haemophilus influenzae, in Papua New Guinean children. J. Infect. Dis. 165:S20-S25.
107. Lennon, D., W. Walker, L. Voss, M. Gillies, D. Martin, T. Ashton, J. Gillespie, and M. Baker. 1992. The case for Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccination in New Zealand. Commun. Dis. N. Z. 2:89-96.
108. Leowski, J. 1986. Mortality from acute respiratory infections in children under five years of age: global estimates. World Health Stat. Q. 39:138-144.
109. Levine, O. S., E. Ortiz, R. Contreras, R. Lagos, P. Vial, A. Misraji, C. Ferreccio, C. Espinoza, L. Adlerstein, P. Herrera, and C. Casar. 1993. Cost-benefit analysis for the use of Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine in Santiago, Chile. Am. J. Epidemiol. 137:1221-1228.
110. Reference deleted.
111. Limcangco, M. R. T., E. G. Salole, and C. L. Armour. 2000. Epidemiology of Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis in Manila, Philippines, 1994 to 1996. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 19:7-11.
112. Mäkelä, P. H., H. Peltola, H. Käyhty, H. Jousimies, O. Pettay, E. Ruoslahti, A. Sivonen, and O.-V. Renkonen. 1977. Polysaccharide vaccines of group A Neisseria meningitidis and Haemophilus influenzae type b: a field trial in Finland. J. Infect. Dis. 136(Suppl.):43-50.
113. Marburg, S., D. Jorn, R. L. Tolman, B. Arison, J. McCauley, P. J. Kniskern, A. Hagopian, and P. P. Vella. 1986. Bimolecular chemistry of macromolecules - synthesis of bacterial polysaccharide conjugates with Neisseria meningitidis membrane protein. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 108:5282-5297.
114. McIntyre, P. B., T. Chey, and W. T. Smith. 1995. The impact of vaccination against invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in the Sydney region. Med. J. Aust. 162:245-248.
115. Mimica, I., E. Donoso, J. E. Howard, and G. W. Ledermann. 1971. Lung puncture in the etiological diagnosis of pneumonia. Am. J. Dis. Child. 122:278-282.
116. Moher, D., P. Fortin, A. R. Jadad, P. Juni, T. Klassen, J. Le Lorier, A. Liberati, K. Linde, and A. Penna. 1996. Completeness of reporting of trials published in languages other than English: implications for conduct and reporting of systematic reviews. Lancet 347:363-366.
117. Mohle-Boetani, J. C., G. Ajello, E. Breneman, K. A. Deaver, C. Harvey, B. D. Plikaytis, M. M. Farley, D. S. Stephens, and J. D. Wenger. 1993. Carriage of Haemophilus influenzae type b in children after widespread vaccination with conjugate Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 12:589-593.
118. Mühlemann, K., E. R. Alexander, M. Pepe, N. S. Weiss, K. Schopfer, and The Swiss Haemophilus influenzae Study Group. 1996. Invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease and epiglottitis among Swiss children from 1980 to 1993: evidence for herd immunity among older age groups. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 28:265-268.
119. Mulholland, E. K., R. O. Suara, G. Siber, D. Roberton, S. Jaffar, J. N'Jie, L. Baden, C. Thompson, R. Anwaruddin, L. Dinan, W. P. Glezen, N. Francis, B. Fritzell, and B. M. Greenwood. 1996. Maternal immunization with Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide-tetanus protein conjugate vaccine in The Gambia. JAMA 275:1182-1188.
120. Mulholland, E. K., S. Hilton, R. A. Adegbola, S. Usen, A. Oparaugo, C. Omosigho, M. Weber, A. Palmer, G. Schneider, K. Jobe, G. Lahai, S. Jaffar, O. Secko, K. Lin, C. Ethevenaux, and B. Greenwood. 1997. Randomised trial of Haemophilus influenzae type-b tetanus protein conjugate vaccine prevention of pneumonia and meningitis in Gambian infants. Lancet 349: 1191-1197.
121. Murphy, T. V., P. Pastor, F. Medley, M. T. Osterholm, and D. M. Granoff. 1993. Decreased Haemophilus colonization in children vaccinated with Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine. J. Pediatr. 122:517-523.
122. Murphy, T. V., K. E. White, P. Pastor, L. Gabriel, F. Medley, D. M. Granoff, and M. T. Osterholm. 1993. Declining incidence of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease since introduction of vaccination. JAMA 269:246-248.
123. Murray, C. J. L., and A. D. Lopez. 1996. Global burden of disease and injury series: global health statistics. A compendium of incidence, prevalence and mortality estimates for over 200 conditions. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
124. Narchi, H., and N. Kulaylat. 1997. Regional Haemophilus influenzae type b immunization program: a success or a false sense of security. Saudi Med. J. 18:155-157.
125. National Advisory Committee on Immunization. 1993. Statement on Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine for use in infants and children. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 148:199-204.
126. Novelli, V. M., F. El Baba, R. G. Lewis, and P. S. Bissell. 1989. Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in an Arab Gulf state. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 8:886-887.
127. Reference deleted.
128. Olarte, D. G. de, H. S. Trujillo, A. P. Uribe, and N. O. Agudelo. 1971. Lung-puncture-aspiration as a bacteriologic diagnostic procedure in acute pneumonias of infants and children. Clin. Pediatr. 10:346-350.
129. Osterholm, M. T., J. H. Rambeck, K. E. White, J. L. Jacobs, L. M. Pierson, J. D. Neaton, C. W. Hedberg, K. L. MacDonald, and D. M. Granoff. 1988. Lack of efficacy of Haemophilus b polysaccharide vaccine in Minnesota. JAMA 260:1423-1428.
130. Parke, J. C., Jr., R. Schneerson, J. B. Robbins, and J. J. Schlesselman. 1977. Interim report of a controlled field trial of immunization with capsular polysaccharide of Haemophilus influenzae type band group C Neisseria meningitidis in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina (March 1974-March 1978). J. Infect. Dis. 136:S51-S56.
131. Reference deleted.
132. Peltola, H. 1997. Haemophilus influenzae type b disease and vaccination in Latin America and The Caribbean. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 16:780-787.
133. Peltola, H. 1998. Haemophilus influenzae type b disease and vaccination in Europe: lessons learnt. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17:S125-S132.
134. Peltola, H. 1999. Spectrum and burden of severe Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in Asia. Bull. W. H. O. 77:878-887.
135. Peltola, H., H. Käyhty, A. Sivonen, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1977. Haemophilus influenzae type b capsular polysaccharide vaccine in children: a double-blind field study of 100,000 vaccinees 3 months to 5 years of age in Finland. Pediatrics 60:730-737.
136. Peltola, H., and M. Virtanen. 1984. Systemic Haemophilus influenzae infections in Finland. Clin. Pediatr. 23:275-280.
137. Peltola, H., H. Käyhty, M. Virtanen, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1984. Prevention of Haemophilus influenzae type b bacteremic infections with the capsular polysaccharide vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med. 310:1561-1566.
138. Peltola, H., T. O. Rød, K. Jónsdóttir, M. Böttiger, and J. A. S. Coolidge. 1990. Life-threatening Haemophilus influenzae infections in Scandinavia: a five-country analysis of the incidence and the main clinical and bacteriologic characteristics. Rev. Infect. Dis. 12:708-715.
139. Peltola, H., T. Kilpi, and M. Anttila. 1992. Rapid disappearance of Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis after routine childhood immunisation with conjugate vaccines. Lancet 340:592-594.
140. Peltola, H., J. Eskola, H. Käyhty, A. K. Takala, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1994. Clinical comparison of the Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide-diphtheria toxoid and the oligosaccharide-CRM197 protein vaccines in infancy. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 148:620-625.
141. Peltola, H., L. Unkila-Kallio, and M. J. T. Kallio. 1998. Reduced incidence of septic arthritis in children by Haemophilus influenzae type-b vaccination. Implications for therapy. J. Bone Joint. Surg. 80:471-473.
142. Peltola, H., P. Aavitsland, K. G. Hansen, K. Jonsdottir, H. Nøkleby, and V. Romanus. 1999. Perspective: a five-country analysis of the impact of four different Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugates and vaccination strategies in Scandinavia. J. Infect. Dis. 179:223-229.
143. Rauter, L., and I. Mutz. 1994. Haemophilus influenzae-Meningitis der Jahre 1983 bis 1992 - Epidemiologie und Folgen der Erkrankung. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 106/7:187-192.
144. Reinert, P., A. Liwartowski, H. Dabernat, C. Guyot, J. Boucher, and C. Carrere. 1993. Epidemiology of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in France. Vaccine 11:S38-S42.
145. Rodrigues, L. P., R. Schneerson, and J. B. Robbins. 1971. Immunity to Haemophilus influenzae type b. I. Isolation, and some physicochemical, serological and biological properties of the capsular polysaccharide of Haemophilus influenzae type b. J. Immunol. 107:1071-1080.
146. Rodrigues de Souza, R. 1993. Meningite por Haemophilus influenzae b. Aspectos clínicos, epidemiológicos e laboratoriais no município do Rio de Janeiro. Clin. Pediatr. 17:56-65.
147. Rosenthal, J., R. Dagan, J. Press, and S. Sofer. 1988. Differences in the epidemiology of childhood community-acquired bacterial meningitis between two ethnic populations cohabiting in one geographic area. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 7:630-633.
148. Rozov, T., P. T. Sakane, and J. R. C. Novaes. 1974. Contribuiçao ao estudo de etilogia das pneumopatias de infancia, por meio da aspiraçao pulmonar transcutanea. Pediatr. Prat. 45:221-232.
149. Ruutu, P., and M. G. Lucero. 1991. Respiratory infections, p. 125-134. In K. S. Lankinen. S. Bergström, P. H. Mäkelä, and M. Peltomaa (ed.), Health and disease in developing countries. The Macmillan Press Ltd., London, United Kingdom.
150. Saha, S. K., W. A. Khan, and S. Saha. 1992. Blood cultures from Bangladeshi children with septicemia: an evaluation of conventional, lysis-direct plating and lysis-centrifugation methods. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 86:554-556.
151. Saha, S. K., N. Rikitomi, M. Ruhulamin, K. Watanabe, K. Ahmed, D. Biswas, M. Hanif, W. A. Khan, M. Islam, K. Matsumoto, and T. Nagatake. 1997. The increasing burden of disease in Bangladeshi children due to Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis. Ann. Trop. Paediatr. 17:5-8.
152. Santosham, M., M. Wolff, R. Reid, M. Wolff, R. Reid, M. Hohenboken, M. Bateman, J. Goepp, M. Cortese, D. Slack, J. Hill, W. Newcomer, L. Capriotti, J. Smith, M. Owen, S. Gahagan, D. Hu, R. Kling, L. Lukacs, R. W. Ellis, P. P. Vella, G. Calandra, H. Matthews, and V. Ahonkhai. 1991. The efficacy in Navajo infants of a conjugate vaccine consisting of Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide and Neisseria meningitidis outer-membrane protein complex. N. Engl. J. Med. 324:1767-1772.
153. Reference deleted.
154. Schneerson, R., O. Barbera, A. Sutton, and J. B. Robbins. 1980. Preparation, characterization, an immunogenicity of Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide-protein conjugates. J. Exp. Med. 152:361-376.
155. Schuster, A. C., M. C. Pino, M. S. Neira, C. S. Vildosola, and L. M. Faini. 1966. La punción biopsial pulmonar como metodo diagnostico de las neumopatías de la infancia. Pediatría 9:9-12.
156. Selwyn, B. J., and BOSTID researchers. 1990. The epidemiology of acute respiratory tract infection in young children: comparison of findings from several developing countries. Rev. Infect. Dis. 12(Suppl. 8):S70-S88.
157. Setarunnahar, A., A. Chowdhury, and F. Hoq. 1985. Aetiological agents of meningitis in Bangladeshi children. Indian J. Med. Microbiol. 6:81-85.
158. Shann, F., M. Gratten, S. Germer, V. Linnemann, D. Hazlett, and R. Payne. 1984. Aetiology of pneumonia in children in Goroka Hospital, Papua New Guinea. Lancet ii:537-541.
159. Shapiro, E. D., and J. I. Ward. 1991. The epidemiology and prevention of disease caused by Haemophilus influenzae type b. Epidemiol. Rev. 13:113-142.
160. Shapiro, E. D., T. V. Murphy, E. R. Wald, and C. A. Brady. 1988. The protective efficacy of Haemophilus b polysaccharide vaccine. JAMA 260: 1419-1422.
161. Sharma, P. R., R. K. Adhikari, M. P. Joshi, M. Lal, T. Chodon, B. M. Pokhrel, R. S. Shrestha, and I. B. Shrestha. 1996. Intravenous chloramphenicol plus penicillin versus intramuscular ceftriaxone for the treatment of pyogenic meningitis in Nepalese children. Trop. Doct. 26:84-85.
162. Shen, S., G. Zhang, and Y. Jiang. 1991. Etiology of 128 cases of acute bacterial meningitis. Chin. J. Infect. Dis. 9:230-232. (In Chinese.)
163. Shinefield, H., and S. Black. 1993. Conjugate Hib vaccines and their combinations: present success and future possibilities. JAMA SEA 9:S20-S23.
164. Reference deleted.
165. Reference deleted.
166. Reference deleted.
167. Steinhoff, M. 1997. Haemophilus influenzae type b infections are preventable everywhere. Lancet 349:1186-1187.
168. Steinhoff, M. C., for the IBIS Group. 1998. Invasive Haemophilus inflitenzae disease in India: a preliminary report of prospective multihospital surveillance. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17:S172-S175.
169. Takala, A. K., J. Eskola, and L. van Alphen. 1990. Spectrum of invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in adults. Arch. Intern. Med. 150: 2573-2576.
170. Takala, A., J. Eskola, M. Leinonen, H. Käyhty, A. Nissinen, E. Pekkanen, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1991. Reduction of oropharyngeal carriage of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) in children immunized with an Hib conjugate vaccine. J. Infect. Dis. 164:982-986.
171. Takala, A. K., J. Eskola, H. Peltola, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1989. Epidemiology of invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease among children in Finland before vaccination with Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 8:297-302.
172. Takala, A. K., H. Peltola, and J. Eskola. 1994. Disappearance of epiglottitis during large-scale vaccination with Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine among children of Finland. Laryngoscope 104:731-735.
173. Takala, A. K., M. Santosham, J. Almeido-Hill, M. Wolff, W. Newcomer, R. Reid, H. Käyhty, E. Esko, and P. H. Mäkelä. 1993. Vaccination with Haemophilus influenzae type b meningococcal protein conjugate vaccine reduces oropharyngeal carriage of Haemophilus influenzae type b among American Indian children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 12:593-599.
174. Teare, E. L., C. K. Fairley, J. White, and N. T. Begg. 1994. Efficacy of Hib vaccine. Lancet 344:828-829.
175. The Children's Vaccine Initiative. 1998. Hib - who's using it, who isn't and why not? CVI Forum 16:13-15.
176. Reference deleted.
177. Tupasi, T. E., M. G. Lucero, D. M. Magdangal, N. V. Mangubat, M. E. Sunico, C. U. Torres, L. E. de Leon, J. F. Paladin, L. Baes, and M. C. Javato. 1990. Etiology of acute lower respiratory tract infection in children from Alabang, Metro Manila. Rev. Infect. Dis. 12(Suppl. 8):S929-S939.
178. Uduman, S. A., K. Devadas, T. Mathew, M. K. Darwish, and A. Khidir. 1994. Childhood bacterial meningitis: the experience of Al Ain Hospital in Eastern region of UAE. Emirates Med. J. 12:227-233.
179. Reference deleted.
180. Urwin, G., M. F. Yuan, and R. A. Feldman. 1994. Prospective study of bacterial meningitis in North East Thames region, 1991-3, during introduction of Haemophilus influenzae vaccine. Br. Med. J. 309:1412-1414.
181. Reference deleted.
182. Vadheim, C. M., D. P. Greenberg, E. Eriksen, L. Hemenway, N. Bendana, L. Mascola, and J. I. Ward. 1994. Eradication of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in Southern California. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 148:51-56.
183. Vadheim, C. M., D. P. Greenberg, E. Eriksen, L. Hemenway, P. Christenson, B. Ward, L. Mascola, and J. I. Ward. 1994. Protection provided by Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccines in Los Angeles County: a case-control study. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 13:274-280.
184. von Kries, R., B. Heinrich, O. Böhm, A. Windfuhr, and H. Helwig. 1997. Systemische Haemophilus influenzae-Erkrankungen in Deutschland 1992-1995. Monatschr. Kinderheilkd. 145:136-143.
185. Voss, L., D. Lennon, and M. Gillies. 1989. Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in Auckland children 1981-87. N. Z. Med. J. 102:149-151.
186. Vutuc, C., and M. Kunze. 1995. Haemophilus influenzae-meningitis in Österreich: Inzidenz 1990-1992. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 107:256-257.
187. Wald, E. R., S. L. Kaplan, E. O. Mason, Jr., D. Sabo, L. Ross, M. Arditi, B. L. Wiedermann, W. Barson, K. S. Kim, R. Yogev, D. Hofkosh, and the Meningitis Study Group. 1995. Dexamethasone therapy for children with bacterial meningitis. Pediatrics 95:21-28.
188. Wall, R. A., P. T. Corrah, D. C. W. Mabey, and B. M. Greenwood. 1986. The etiology of pneumonia in The Gambia. Bull. W. H. O. 64:553-558.
189. Ward, J., G. Brenneman, G. W. Letson, W. L. Heyward, and the Alaska H. influenzae Vaccine Study Group. 1990. Limited efficacy of a Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine in Alaska native infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 323:1393-1401.
190. Ward, J. I., K. W. Lum, D. B. Hall, D. R. Silimperi, and T. R. Bender. 1986. Invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in Alaska: background epidemiology for a vaccine efficacy trial. J. Infect. Dis. 153:17-26.
191. Weinberg, G. A., A. Ghafoor, Z. Ishaq, N. K. Nomani, M. Kabeer, F. Anwar, M. I. Burney, A. W. Qureshi, J. M. Musser, R. K. Selander, and D. M. Granoff. 1989. Clonal analysis of Haemophilus influenzae isolated from children from Pakistan with lower respiratory infection. J. Infect. Dis. 160:634-643.
192. Weinberg, G. A., and D. M. Granoff. 1988. Polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccines for the prevention of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease. J. Pediatr. 113:621-631.
193. Wenger, J. D. 1994. Impact of Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines on the epidemiology of bacterial meningitis. Infect. Agents Dis. 2:324-332.
194. Wenger, J. D., A. W. Hightower, R. R. Facklam, C. V. Broome, and the Bacterial Meningitis Study Group. 1990. Bacterial meningitis in the United States, 1986: report of a multistate study. J. Infect. Dis. 162:1316-1323.
195. Wenger, J. D., R. Pierce, and K. Deaver. 1992. Invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease: a population-based evaluation of the role of capsular polysaccharide serotype. J. Infect. Dis. 165:S34-S35.
196. World Health Organization. 1998. Global program for vaccines and immunization. The WHO position paper on Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccines. 1998. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 73:64-68.
197. Zadik, P. M. 1986. A bacteriological study of meningitis in Kumasi, Ghana. J. Infect. 13:305-306.
198. Zielen, S., P. Ahrens, and D. Hofmann. 1994. Efficacy of Hib vaccine. Lancet 344:828.
199. Yang, Y., Z. Leng, X. Shen, D. Lu, Z. Jiang, J. Rao, X. Fan, J. Liu, and Y. Shen. 1996. Acute bacterial meningitis in children in Hefei, China 1990-1992. Chin. Med. J. 109:385-388.
200. Yang, Y., Y. Shen, Z. Jiang, X. Liu, Z. Leng, D. Lu, J. Rao, J. Liu, and L. Chang. 1998. Study on Haemophilus influenzae type b diseases in China: the past, present and future. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17:5159-8165.