Current pharmacological approach to restore endothelial dysfunction

Cardiovascular and Hematological Agents in Medicinal Chemistry

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 212-222

  Dobarro, D ^a   Gomez Rubin M C ^a   Sanchez Recalde, A ^a   Moreno, R ^a   Galeote, G ^a   Jimenez Valero, S ^a   Calvo, L ^a   Lopez de Sa E ^a   Lopez Sendion J L ^a  

^a HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO LA PAZ   (Spain)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Coronary artery disease; Endothelial dysfunction; Endothelium; Prognosis; Treatment

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCHOLINE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; AMLODIPINE; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIOXIDANT; ARGININE; ASCORBIC ACID; ATORVASTATIN; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CARVEDILOL; DILTIAZEM; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; EPLERENONE; FOLIC ACID; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; ISOSORBIDE 5 NITRATE; LISINOPRIL; NEBIVOLOL; NITRATE; OLMESARTAN; PLACEBO; PRAVASTATIN; QUINAPRIL; SIMVASTATIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VERAPAMIL;

ANGINA PECTORIS; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONGESTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG MECHANISM; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; ENDOTHELIUM; ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION; HEART FAILURE; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INTRACORONARY INFUSION; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LEUKOCYTE ADHERENCE; NON INVASIVE PROCEDURE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING; SYNDROME X; THROMBOCYTE FUNCTION; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

ADRENERGIC BETA-ANTAGONISTS; ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME INHIBITORS; ANIMALS; ANTIOXIDANTS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS; ENDOTHELIUM; FOLIC ACID; HUMANS; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL-COA REDUCTASE INHIBITORS; NITRATES; NITRIC OXIDE; RECEPTORS, ANGIOTENSIN;

EID: 70349483849     PISSN: 18715257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/187152509789105480     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Camici, P.G.; Crea, F. Coronary microvascular dysfunction. N. Engl. J. Med., 2007, 356, 830.
2. Vita, J.A.; Keaney, J.F. Jr. Endothelial function: a barometer for cardiovascular risk? Circulation, 2002, 106, 640.
3. Moncada, S.; Higgs, A. The L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. N. Engl. J. Med., 1993, 329, 2002.
4. Widlansky, M.E.; Gokce, N.; Keaney, J.F., Jr.; Vita, J.A. The clinical implications of endothelial dysfunction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2003, 42, 1149.
5. Ruiz-Ortega, M.; Lorenzo, O.; Ruperez, M.; Esteban, V.; Suzuki, Y.; Mezzano, S.; Plaza, J.J.; Egido, J. Role of the Renin-Angiotensin system in vascular diseases: expanding the field. Hypertension, 2001, 38, 1382.
6. Berk, B.C. Atheroprotective signaling mechanisms activated by steady laminar flow in endothelial cells. Circulation, 2008, 117, 1082.
7. Ross, R. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: a perspective for the 1990s. Nature, 1993, 362, 801.
8. Shimokawa, H. Primary endothelial dysfunction: atherosclerosis. J. Mol. Cell Cardiol., 1999, 31, 23.
9. Bugiardini, R.; Bairey Merz, C.N. Angina with "normal" coronary arteries: a changing philosophy. JAMA, 2005, 293, 477.
10. Deanfield, J.E.; Halcox, J.P.; Rabelink, T.J. Endothelial function and dysfunction: testing and clinical relevance. Circulation, 2007, 115, 1285.
11. van Boven, A.J.; Jukema, J.W.; Zwinderman, A.H.; Crijns, H.J.; Lie, K.I.; Bruschke, A.V. Reduction of transient myocardial ischemia with pravastatin in addition to the conventional treatment in patients with angina pectoris. REGRESS Study Group. Circulation, 1996, 94, 1503.
12. Furchgott, R.F.; Zawadki, J.V. The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine. Nature, 1980, 288, 373.
13. Förstermann, U.; Münzel, T. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase in vascular disease: from marvel to menace. Circulation, 2006, 113, 1708.
14. Halcox, J.P.; Narayanan, S.; Cramer-Joyce, L.; Mincemoyer, R.; Quyyumi, A.A. Characterization of endothelium derived hyperpolarizing factor in human forearm microcirculation. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol., 2001, 280, H2470.
15. Kinlay, S.; Behrendt, D.; Wainstein, M.; Beltrame, J.; Fang, J.C.; Creager, M.A.; Selwyn, A.P.; Ganz P. Role of endothelin-1 in the active constriction of human atherosclerotic coronary arteries. Circulation, 2001, 104, 1114.
16. Sudhir, K.; McGregor, J.S.; Gupta, M.; Barbant, S.D.; Redberg, R.; Yock, P.G.; Chatterjee K. Effect of selective angiotensin II receptor antagonism and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition on the coronary vasculature in vivo. Intravascular two-dimensional and Doppler ultrasound studies. Circulation, 1993, 87, 931.
17. Kubes, P.; Suzuki, M.; Granger, D.N. Nitric oxide: an endogenous modulator of leukocyte adhesion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1991, 88, 4651.
18. Michelson, A.D.; Benoit, S.E.; Furman, M.I.; Breckwoldt, W.L.; Rohrer, M.J.; Barnard, M.R.; Loscalzo, J. Effects of nitric oxide/EDRF on platelet surface glycoproteins. Am. J. Physiol., 1996, 270, H1640.
19. Verma, S.; Anderson, T.J. Fundamentals of endothelial function for the clinical cardiologist. Circulation, 2002, 105, 546.
20. Levine, G.N.; Keaney, J.F. Jr., Vita, J.A. Cholesterol reduction in cardiovascular disease. Clinical benefits and possible mechanisms. N. Engl. J. Med., 1995, 323, 512.
21. Libby, P. Current concepts of the pathogenesis of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation, 2001, 104, 365.
22. Hurst, T.; Olson, T.H.; Olson, L.E.; Appleton, C.P. Cardiac syndrome X and endothelial dysfunction: new concepts in prognosis and treatment. Am. J. Med., 2006, 119, 560.
23. Kaufmann, P.A.; Gnecchi-Ruscone, T.; di Terlizzi, M.; Schäfers, K.P.; Lüscher, T.F.; Camici, P.G. Coronary heart disease in smokers: vitamin C restores coronary microcirculatory function. Circulation, 2000, 102, 1233.
24. Dayanikli, F.; Grambow, D.; Muzik, O.; Mosca, L.; Rubenfire, M.; Schwaiger, M. Early detection of abnormal coronary flow reserve in asymptomatic men at high risk for coronary artery disease using positron emission tomography. Circulation, 1994, 90, 808.
25. Gould, K.L.; Martucci, J.P.; Goldberg, D.I.; Hess, M.J.; Edens, R.P.; Latifi, R.; Dudrick, S.J. Short-term cholesterol lowering decreases size and severity of perfusion abnormalities by positron emission tomography after dipyridamole in patients with coronary artery disease. A potential noninvasive marker of healing coronary endothelium. Circulation, 1994, 89, 1530.
26. Steinberg, D. Antioxidants and atherosclerosis. A current assessment. Circulation, 1991, 84, 1420.
27. Nitenberg, A.; Valensi, P.; Sachs, R.; Dali, M.; Aptecar, E.; Attali, J.R. Impairment of coronary vascular reserve and ACh-induced coronary vasodilation in diabetic patients with angiographically normal coronary arteries and normal left ventricular systolic function. Diabetes, 1993, 42, 1017.
28. Di Carli, M.F.; Janisse, J.; Grunberger, G.; Ager, J. Role of chronic hyperglycemia in the pathogenesis of coronary microvascular dysfunction in diabetes. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2003, 41, 1387.
29. Williams, S.B.; Goldfine, A.B.; Timimi, F.K.; Ting, H.H.; Roddy, M.A.; Simonson, D.C.; Creager, M.A. Acute hyperglycemia attenuates endothelium-dependent vasodilation in humans in vivo. Circulation, 1998, 97, 1695.
30. Giannotti, G.; Landmesser, U. Endothelial dysfunction as an early sign of atherosclerosis. Herz, 2007, 32, 568.
31. Tousoulis, D.; Antoniades, D.; Stefanadis, C. Evaluating endothelial function in humans: a guide to invasive and non-invasive techniques. Heart, 2005, 91, 553.
32. Tousoulis, D.; Davies, G.; Lefroy, D.C.; Haider, A.W.; Crake, T. Variable coronary vasomotor responses to acetylcholine in patients with normal coronary arteriograms: evidence for localised endothelial dysfunction. Heart, 1996, 75, 261.
33. Anderson, T.J.; Uehata, A.; Gerhard, M.D.; Meredith, I.T.; Knab, S.; Delagrange, D.; Lieberman, E.H.; Ganz, P.; Creager, M.A.; Yeung, A.C.; Selwyn, A.P. Close relation of endothelial function in the human coronary and peripheral circulations. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 1995, 26, 1235.
34. Celermajer, D.S.; Sorensen, K.E.; Gooch, V.W.; Spiegelhalter, D.J.; Miller, O.I.; Sullivan, I.D.; Lloyd, J.K.; Deanfield, J.E. Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet, 1992, 340, 1111.
35. Suwaidi, J.A.; Hamasaki, S.; Higano, S.T.; Nishimura, R.A.; Holmes, D.R. Jr.; Lerman, A. Long-term follow-up of patients with mild coronary artery disease and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation, 2000, 101, 948.
36. Halcox, J.P.; Schenke, W.H.; Zalos, G.; Mincemoyer, R.; Prasad, A.; Waclawiw, M.A.; Nour, K.R.; Quyyumi, A.A. Prognostic value of coronary vascular endothelial dysfunction. Circulation, 2002, 106, 653.
37. von Mering, G.O.; Arant, C.B.; Wessel, T.R.; McGorray, S.P.; Bairey Merz, C.N.; Smith, K.M.; Olson, M.B.; Johnson, B.D.; Sopko, G.; Handberg, E.; Pepine, C.J.; Kerensky, R.A.; National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Abnormal coronary vasomotion as a prognostic indicator of cardiovascular events in women: results from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-Sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE). Circulation, 2004, 109, 722.
38. Nitenberg, A.; Pham, I.; Antony, I.; Valensi, P.; Attali, J.R.; Chemla, D. Cardiovascular outcome of patients with abnormal coronary vasomotion and normal coronary arteriography is worse in type 2 diabetes mellitus than in arterial hypertension: a 10 year follow-up study. Atherosclerosis, 2005, 183, 113.
39. Schächinger, V.; Britten, M.B.; Zeiher, A.M. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation, 2000, 101, 1899.
40. Targonski, P.V.; Bonetti, P.O.; Pumper, G.M.; Higano, S.T.; Holmes, D.R. Jr., Lerman, A. Coronary endothelial dysfunction is associated with an increased risk of cerebrovascular events. Circulation, 2003, 107, 2805.
41. Bugiardini, R.; Manfrini, O.; Pizzi, C.; Fontana, F.; Morgagni, G. Endothelial function predicts future development of coronary artery disease: a study of women with chest pain and normal coronary angiograms. Circulation, 2004, 109, 2518.
42. Fichtlscherer, S.; Breuer, S.; Zeiher, A.M. Prognostic value of systemic endothelial dysfunction in patients with acute coronary syndromes: further evidence for the existence of the "vulnerable" patient. Circulation, 2004, 110, 1926.
43. Vita, J.A. Endothelial function and clinical outcome. Heart, 2005, 91, 1278.
44. Rajagopalan, S.; Kurz, S.; Münzel, T.; Tarpey, M.; Freeman, B.A.; Griendling, K.K.; Harrison, D.G. Angiotensin II-mediated hypertension in the rat increases vascular superoxide production via membrane NADH/NADPH oxidase activation. Contribution to alterations of vasomotor tone. J. Clin. Invest., 1996, 97, 1916.
45. Griendling, K.K.; Minieri, C.A.; Ollerenshaw, J.D.; Alexander, R.W. Angiotensin II stimulates NADH and NADPH oxidase activity in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ. Res., 1994, 74, 1141.
46. Hornig, B.; Landmesser, U.; Kohler, C.; Ahlersmann, D.; Spiekermann, S.; Christoph, A.; Tatge, H.; Drexler, H. Comparative effect of ace inhibition and angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonism on bioavailability of nitric oxide in patients with coronary artery disease: role of superoxide dismutase. Circulation, 2001, 103, 799.
47. Wassmann, S.; Hilgers, S.; Laufs, U.; Böhm, M.; Nickenig, G. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonism improves hypercholesterolemia-associated endothelial dysfunction. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 2002, 22, 1208.
48. Chen, J.W.; Hsu, N.W.; Wu, T.C.; Lin, S.J.; Chang, M.S. Long-term angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition reduces plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine and improves endothelial nitric oxide bioavailability and coronary microvascular function in patients with syndrome X. Am. J. Cardiol., 2002, 90, 974.
49. Antony, I.; Lerebours, G.; Nitenberg, A. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition restores flow-dependent and cold pressor test-induced dilations in coronary arteries of hypertensive patients. Circulation, 1996, 94, 3115.
50. Taddei, S.; Virdis, A.; Ghiadoni, L.; Mattei, P.; Salvetti, A. Effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition on endothelium-dependent vasodilatation in essential hypertensive patients. J. Hypertens., 1998, 16, 447.
51. Mancini, G.B.; Henry, G.C.; Macaya, C.; O'Neill, B.J.; Pucillo, A.L.; Carere, R.G.; Wargovich, T.J.; Mudra, H.; Luscher, T.F.; Klibaner, M.I.; Haber, H.E.; Uprichard, A.C.; Pepine, C.J.; Pitt, B. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition with quinapril improves endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease: The TREND (Trial on Reversing ENdothelial Dysfunction) study. Circulation, 1996, 94, 258.
52. Higashi, Y.; Sasaki, S.; Nakagawa, K.; Ueda, T.; Yoshimizu, A.; Kurisu, S.; Matsuura, H.; Kajiyama, G.; Oshima, T. A comparison of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, calcium antagonists, beta-blockers and diuretic agents on reactive hyperemia in patients with essential hypertension: a multicenter study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2000, 35, 284.
53. Koifman, B.; Topilski, I.; Megidish, R.; Zelmanovich, L.; Chernihovsky, T.; Bykhovsky, E.; Keren, G. Effects of losartan + L-arginine on nitric oxide production, endothelial cell function, and hemodynamic variables in patients with heart failure secondary to coronary heart disease. Am. J. Cardiol., 2006, 98, 172.
54. Naya, M.; Tsukamoto, T.; Morita, K.; Katoh, C.; Furumoto, T.; Fujii, S.; Tamaki, N.; Tsutsui, H. Olmesartan, but not amlodipine, improves endothelium-dependent coronary dilation in hypertensive patients. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2007, 50, 1144.
55. Joffe, H.V.; Kwong, R.Y.; Gerhard-Herman, M.D.; Rice, C.; Feldman, K.; Adler, G.K. Beneficial effects of eplerenone versus hydrochlorothiazide on coronary circulatory function in patients with diabetes mellitus. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2007, 92, 2552.
56. Bugiardini, R.; Borghi, A.; Biagetti, L.; Puddu, P. Comparison of verapamil versus propranolol therapy in syndrome X. Am. J. Cardiol., 1989, 63, 286.
57. Kalinowski, L.; Dobrucki, L.W.; Szczepanska-Konkel, M.; Jankowski, M.; Martyniec, L.; Angielski, S.; Malinski, T. Third-generation beta-blockers stimulate nitric oxide release from endothelial cells through ATP efflux: a novel mechanism for antihypertensive action. Circulation, 2003, 107, 2747.
58. Maffei, A.; Di Pardo, A.; Carangi, R.; Carullo, P.; Poulet, R.; Gentile, M.T.; Vecchione, C.; Lembo, G. Nebivolol induces nitric oxide release in the heart through inducible nitric oxide synthase activation. Hypertension, 2007, 50, 652.
59. Yoshioka, T.; Iwamoto, N.; Tsukahara, F.; Irie, K.; Urakawa, I.; Muraki, T. Anti-NO action of carvedilol in cell-free system and in vascular endothelial cells. Br. J. Pharmacol., 2000, 129, 1530.
60. Nishioka, K.; Nakagawa, K.; Umemura, T.; Jitsuiki, D.; Ueda, K.; Goto, C.; Chayama, K.; Yoshizumi, M.; Higashi, Y. Carvedilol improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart, 2007, 93, 247.
61. Neglia, D.; De Maria, R.; Masi, S.; Gallopin, M.; Pisani, P.; Pardini, S.; Gavazzi, A.; L'Abbate, A.; Parodi, O. Effects of long-term treatment with carvedilol on myocardial blood flow in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart, 2007, 93, 808.
62. Mason, R.P.; Kalinowski, L.; Jacob, R.F.; Jacoby, A.M.; Malinski, T. Nebivolol reduces nitroxidative stress and restores nitric oxide bioavailability in endothelium of black Americans. Circulation, 2005, 112, 3795.
63. Togni, M.; Vigorito, F.; Windeckers, S.; Abrecht, L.; Wenaweser, P.; Cook, S.; Billinger, M.; Meier, B.; Hess, O.M. Does the beta-blocker nebivolol increase coronary flow reserve? Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther., 2007, 21, 99.
64. Masoli, O.; Redruello, M.; Baliño, N.P.; Grynberg, L.; Sonia, T.; Collaud, C.; Md, L.V. Use of nebivolol for the treatment of endothelial dysfunction in patients with hypertension: the EDEN registry. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol., 2008, 51, 202.
65. Fábián, E.; Varga, A.; Picano, E.; Vajo, Z.; Rónaszéki, A.; Csanády, M. Effect of simvastatin on endothelial function in cardiac syndrome X patients. Am. J. Cardiol., 2004, 94, 652.
66. Van der Harst, P.; Wagenaar, L.J.; Buikema, H.; Voors, A.A.; Plokker, H.W.; Morshuis, W.J.; Six, A.J.; Boonstra, P.W.; Nickenig, G.; Wassmann, S.; Van Veldhuisen, D.J.; Van Gilst, W.H. Effect of intensive versus moderate lipid lowering on endothelial function and vascular responsiveness to angiotensin II in stable coronary artery disease. Am. J. Cardiol., 2005, 96, 1361.
67. Davignon, J. Beneficial cardiovascular pleiotropic effects of statins. Circulation, 2004, 109, III-39.
68. Albert, M.A.; Danielson, E.; Rifai, N.; Ridker, P.M.; PRINCE Investigators. Effect of statin therapy on C-reactive protein levels: the pravastatin inflammation/CRP evaluation (PRINCE): a randomized trial and cohort study. JAMA, 2001, 286, 64.
69. Mäki-Petäjä, K.M.; Booth, A.D.; Hall, F.C.; Wallace, S.M.; Brown, J.; McEniery, C.M.; Wilkinson, I.B. Ezetimibe and simvastatin reduce inflammation, disease activity, and aortic stiffness and improve endothelial function in rheumatoid arthritis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2007, 50, 852.
70. Nanayakkara, P.W.; Van Guldener, C.; Ter Wee, P.M.; Scheffer, P.G.; Van Ittersum, F.J.; Twisk, J.W.; Teerlink, T.; Van Dorp, W.; Stehouwer, C.D. Effect of a treatment strategy consisting of pravastatin, vitamin E, and homocysteine lowering on carotid intimamedia thickness, endothelial function, and renal function in patients with mild to moderate chronic kidney disease: results from the Anti-Oxidant Therapy in Chronic Renal Insufficiency (ATIC) Study. Arch. Intern. Med., 2007, 167, 1262.
71. Tousoulis, D.; Antoniades, C.; Vassiliadou, C.; Toutouza, M.; Pitsayos, C.; Tentolouris, C.; Trikas, A.; Stefanadis, C. Effects of combined administration of low dose atorvastatin and vitamin E on inflammatory markers and endothelial function in patients with heart failure. Eur. J. Heart Fail., 2005, 7, 1126.
72. Anderson, T.J.; Meredith, I.T.; Yeung, A.C.; Frei, B.; Selwyn, A.P.; Ganz, P. The effect of cholesterol-lowering and antioxidant therapy on endothelium-dependent coronary vasomotion. N. Engl. J. Med., 1995, 332, 488.
73. Kaski, J.C.; Rosano, G.M.; Collins, P.; Nihoyannopoulos, P.; Maseri, A.; Poole-Wilson, P.A. Cardiac syndrome X: clinical characteristics and left ventricular function. Long-term follow-up study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 1995, 26, 1562.
74. Thomas, G.R.; DiFabio, J.M.; Gori, T.; Parker, J.D. Once daily therapy with isosorbide-5-mononitrate causes endothelial dysfunction in humans: evidence of a free-radical-mediated mechanism. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2007, 49, 1289.
75. Cannon, R.O., 3rd.; Watson, R.M.; Rosing, D.R.; Epstein, S.E. Efficacy of calcium channel blocker therapy for angina pectoris resulting from small-vessel coronary artery disease and abnormal vasodilator reserve. Am. J. Cardiol., 1985, 56, 242.
76. Sütsch, G.; Oechslin, E.; Mayer, I.; Hess, O.M. Effect of diltiazem on coronary flow reserve in patients with microvascular angina. Int. J. Cardiol., 1995, 52, 135.
77. Ting, H.H.; Timimi, F.K.; Haley, E.A.; Roddy, M.A.; Ganz, P.; Creager, M.A. Vitamin C improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in forearm resistance vessels of humans with hypercholesterolemia. Circulation, 1997, 95, 2617.
78. Heitzer, T.; Just, H.; Munzel, T. Antioxidant vitamin C improves endothelial dysfunction in chronic smokers. Circulation, 1996, 94, 6.
79. Plantinga, Y.; Ghiadoni, L.; Magagna, A.; Giannarelli, C.; Franzoni, F.; Taddei, S.; Salvetti, A. Supplementation with vitamins C and E improves arterial stiffness and endothelial function in essential hypertensive patients. Am. J. Hypertens., 2007, 20, 392.
80. Tam, L.S.; Li, E.K.; Leung, V.Y.; Griffith, J.F.; Benzie, I.F.; Lim, P.L.; Whitney, B.; Lee, V.W.; Lee, K.K.; Thomas, G.N.; Tomlinson, B. Effects of vitamins C and E on oxidative stress markers and endothelial function in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a double blind, placebo controlled pilot study. J. Rheumatol., 2005, 32, 275.
81. McKechnie, R.; Rubenfire, M.; Mosca, L. Antioxidant nutrient supplementation and brachial reactivity in patients with coronary artery disease. J. Lab. Clin. Med., 2002, 139, 133.
82. Gilligan, D.M.; Sack, M.N.; Guetta, V.; Casino, P.R.; Quyyumi, A.A.; Rader, D.J.; Panza, J.A.; Cannon, R.O., 3rd. Effect of antioxidant vitamins on low density lipoprotein oxidation and impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with hypercholesterolemia. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 1994, 7, 1611.
83. Title, L.M.; Cummings, P.M.; Giddens, K.; Genest, J.J. Jr.; Nassar, B.A. Effect of folic acid and antioxidant vitamins on endothelial dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2000, 36, 758.
84. Antoniades, C.; Shirodaria, C.; Warrick, N.; Cai, S.; de Bono, J.; Lee, J.; Leeson, P.; Neubauer, S.; Ratnatunga, S.; Pillai, R.; Refsum, H.; Channon, K.M. 5-Methyltetrahydrofolate rapidly improves endothelial function and decreases superoxide production in human vessels: effects on vascular tetrahydrobiopterin availability and endothelial nitric oxide synthase coupling. Circulation, 2006, 114, 1193.
85. Moens, A.L.; Claeys, M.J.; Wuyts, F.L.; Goovaerts, I.; Van Hertbruggen, E.; Wendelen, L.C.; Van Hoof, V.O.; Vrints, C.J. Effect of folic acid on endothelial function following acute myocardial infarction. Am. J. Cardiol., 2007, 99, 476.
86. Nitenberg, A.; Ledoux, S.; Attali, J.R.; Valensi, P. Response of the coronary arteries to cold test and flow velocity increase is improved by deferoxamine but not by L-arginine in diabetic patients. Arch. Mal. Coeur Vaiss., 1997, 90, 1037.
87. Lekakis, J.P.; Papathanassiou, S.; Papaioannou, T.G.; Papamichael, C.M.; Zakopoulos, N.; Kotsis, V.; Dagre, A.G.; Stamatelopoulos, K.; Protogerou, A.; Stamatelopoulos, S.F. Oral L-arginine improves endothelial dysfunction in patients with essential hypertension. Int. J. Cardiol., 2002, 86, 317.
88. Higashi, Y.; Sasaki, S.; Nakagawa, K.; Kimura, M.; Noma, K.; Hara, K.; Jitsuiki, D.; Goto, C.; Oshima, T.; Chayama, K.; Yoshizumi, M. Tetrahydrobiopterin improves aging-related impairment of endothelium-dependent vasodilation through increase in nitric oxide production. Atherosclerosis, 2006, 186, 390.
89. Cosentino, F.; Hürlimann, D.; delli Gatti, C.; Chenevard, R.; Blau, N.; Alp, N.J.; Channon, K.M.; Eto, M.; Lerch, P.; Enseleit, F.; Ruschitzka, F.; Volpe, M.; Lüscher, T.F.; Noll, G. Chronic treatment with tetrahydrobiopterin reverses endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress in hypercholesterolemia. Heart, 2008, 94, 487.
90. Sahin, G.; Yalcin, A.U.; Akcar, N. Effect of N-acetylcysteine on endothelial dysfunction in dialysis patients. Blood Purif., 2007, 25, 309.
91. Waring, W.S.; McKnight, J.A.; Webb, D.J.; Maxwell, S.R. Uric acid restores endothelial function in patients with type 1 diabetes and regular smokers. Diabetes, 2006, 55, 3127.
92. Xi, H.; Akishita, M.; Nagai, K.; Yu, W.; Hasegawa, H.; Eto, M.; Kozaki, K.; Toba, K. Potent free radical scavenger, edaravone, suppresses oxidative stress-induced endothelial damage and early atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis, 2007, 191, 281.
93. Gaibazzi, N.; Ziacchi, V. Reversibility of stress-echo induced ST-segment depression by long-term oral n-3 PUFA supplementation in subjects with chest pain syndrome, normal wall motion at stress-echo and normal coronary angiogram. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 2004, 4, 1.
94. Heitzer, T.; Rudolph, V.; Schewedhelm, E.; Karstens, M.; Sydow, K.; Ortak, M.; Tschentscher, P.; Meinertz, T.; Böger, R.; Baldus, S. Clopidogrel improves systemic endothelial nitric oxide bioavailability in patients with coronary artery disease: evidence for antioxidant and antiinflammatory effects. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 2006, 26, 1648.
95. Wang, T.D.; Chen, W.J.; Cheng, W.C.; Lin, J.W.; Chen, M.F.; Lee, Y.T. Relation of improvement in endothelium-dependent flow-mediated vasodilation after rosiglitazone to changes in asymmetric dimethylarginine, endothelin-1, and C-reactive protein in nondiabetic patients with the metabolic syndrome. Am. J. Cardiol., 2006, 98, 1057.
96. Mazzone, T.; Meyer, P.M.; Feinstein, S.B.; Davidson, M.H.; Kondos, G.T.; D'Agostino, R.B. Sr., Perez, A.; Provost, J.C.; Haffner, S.M. Effect of pioglitazone compared with glimepiride on carotid intima-media thickness in type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. JAMA, 2006, 296, 2572.
97. Rosano, G.M.; Peters, N.S.; Lefrov, D.; Lindsay, D.C.; Sarrel, P.M.; Collins, P.; Poole-Wilson, P.A. 17-beta-Estradiol therapy lessens angina in postmenopausal women with syndrome X. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 1996, 28, 1500.
98. Yeboah, J.; Reboussin, D.M.; Waters, D.; Kowalchuk, G.; Herrington, D.M. Effects of estrogen replacement with and without medroxyprogesterone acetate on brachial flow-mediated vasodilator responses in postmenopausal women with coronary artery disease. Am. Heart J., 2007, 153, 439.
99. Higashi, Y.; Goto, C.; Jitsuiki, D.; Umemura, T.; Nishioka, K.; Hidaka, T.; Takemoto, H.; Nakamura, S.; Soga, J.; Chayama, K.; Yoshizumi, M.; Taguchi, A. Periodontal infection is associated with endothelial dysfunction in healthy subjects and hypertensive patients. Hypertension, 2008, 51, 446.
100. Tonetti, M.S.; D'Aiuto, F.; Nibali, L.; Donald, A.; Storry, C.; Parkar, M.; Suvan, J.; Hingorani, A.D.; Vallance, P.; Deanfield, J. Treatment of periodontitis and endothelial function. N. Engl. J. Med., 2007, 356, 911.