Constitutional mechanisms of vulnerability and resilience to nicotine dependence

Molecular Psychiatry

Volumn 14, Issue 7, 2009, Pages 653-667

  Hiroi, N ^a   Scott, D ^a  

^a ALBERT EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Addiction; Comorbidity; Genetic susceptibility; Knockout mice; Smoking; Translational model

Indexed keywords

GENETIC RESISTANCE; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE;

ANIMALS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; MONOAMINE OXIDASE; NICOTINE; PHENOTYPE; SMOKING; TOBACCO USE DISORDER;

EID: 67649343144     PISSN: 13594184     EISSN: 14765578     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/mp.2009.16     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. World Health Organization. Tobacco: Deadly in any Form and Disguise. World Health Organization, WHO Press: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Symptoms of substance dependence associated with use of cigarettes, alcohol, and illicit drugs-United Sates, 1991-1992. MMWR 1995; 44: 831-839.
3. Hughes J, Stead L, Lancaster T. Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; 4: CD000031.
4. Stead LF, Perera R, Bullen C, Mant D, Lancaster T. Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 1: CD000146.
5. Rose JE. Nicotine and nonnicotine factors in cigarette addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 2006; 184: 274-285.
6. Donny EC, Houtsmuller E, Stitzer ML. Smoking in the absence of nicotine: behavioral, subjective and physiological effects over 11 days. Addiction 2007; 102: 324-334.
7. Buchhalter AR, Acosta MC, Evans SE, Breland AB, Eissenberg T. Tobacco abstinence symptom suppression: the role played by the smoking-related stimuli that are delivered by denicotinized cigarettes. Addiction 2005; 100: 550-559.
8. Rohsenow DJ, Monti PM, Hutchison KE, Swift RM, MacKinnon SV, Sirota AD et al. High-dose transdermal nicotine and naltrexone: effects on nicotine withdrawal, urges, smoking, and effects of smoking. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2007; 15: 81-92.
9. Rollema H, Coe JW, Chambers LK, Hurst RS, Stahl SM, Williams KE. Rationale, pharmacology and clinical efficacy of partial agonists of alpha4beta2 nACh receptors for smoking cessation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2007; 28: 316-325.
10. Cahill K, Stead LF, Lancaster T. Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 3: CD006103.
11. Harvey DM, Yasar S, Heishman SJ, Panlilio LV, Henningfield JE, Goldberg SR. Nicotine serves as an effective reinforcer of intravenous drug-taking behavior in human cigarette smokers. Psychopharmacology (Rerlin) 2004; 175: 134-142.
12. Heatherton TF, Kozlowski LT, Frecker RC, Fagerstrom KO. The Fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence: a revision of the Fagerstrom tolerance questionnaire. Rr J Addict 1991; 86: 1119-1127.
13. Hughes JR, Helzer JE, Lindberg SA. Prevalence of DSM/ICD-defined nicotine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2006; 85: 91-102.
14. Moolchan ET, Radzius A, Epstein DH, Uhl G, Gorelick DA, Cadet JL et al. The Fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence and the Diagnostic Interview Schedule: do they diagnose the same smokers? Addict Rehav 2002; 27: 101-113.
15. Breslau N, Johnson EO. Predicting smoking cessation and major depression in nicotine-dependent smokers. Am J Public Health 2000; 90: 1122-1127.
16. Piper ME, McCarthy DE, Bolt DM, Smith SS, Lerman C, Benowitz N et al. Assessing dimensions of nicotine dependence: an evaluation of the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale (NDSS) and the Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives (WISDM). Nicotine Tob Res 2008; 10: 1009-1020.
17. Tiffany ST, Conklin CA, Shiffman S, Clayton RR. What can dependence theories tell us about assessing the emergence of tobacco dependence? Addiction 2004; 99(Suppl 1): 78-86.
18. Piper ME, Piasecki TM, Federman EB, Bolt DM, Smith SS, Fiore MC et al. A multiple motives approach to tobacco dependence: the Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives (WISDM-68). J Consul Clin Psychol 2004; 72: 139-154.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cigarette Smoking Among Adults-United States, 2004. MMWR 2005; 54: 1121-1124.
20. Chassin L, Presson CC, Pitts SC, Sherman SJ. The natural history of cigarette smoking from adolescence to adulthood in a midwestern community sample: multiple trajectories and their psychosocial correlates. Health Psychol 2000; 19: 223-231.
21. Colder CR, Mehta P, Balanda K, Campbell RT, Mayhew KP, Stanton WR et al. Identifying trajectories of adolescent smoking: an application of latent growth mixture modeling. Health Psychol 2001; 20: 127-135.
22. Soldz S, Cui X. Pathways through adolescent smoking: a 7-year longitudinal grouping analysis. Health Psychol 2002; 21: 495-504.
23. White HR, Pandina RJ, Chen PH. Developmental trajectories of cigarette use from early adolescence into young adulthood. Drug Alcohol Depend 2002; 65: 167-178.
24. White HR, Nagin D, Replogle E, Stouthamer-Loeber M. Racial differences in trajectories of cigarette use. Drug Alcohol Depend 2004; 76: 219-227.
25. Audrain-McGovern J, Rodriguez D, Tercyak KP, Cuevas J, Rodgers K, Patterson F. Identifying and characterizing adolescent smoking trajectories. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004; 13: 2023-2034.
26. Orlando M, Tucker JS, Ellickson PL, Klein DJ. Developmental trajectories of cigarette smoking and their correlates from early adolescence to young adulthood. J Consult Clin Psychol 2004; 72: 400-410.
27. Stanton WR, Flay BR, Colder CR, Mehta P. Identifying and predicting adolescent smokers' developmental trajectories. Nicotine Tob Res 2004; 6: 843-852.
28. Vitaro F, Wanner B, Brendgen M, Gosselin C, Gendreau PL. Differential contribution of parents and friends to smoking trajectories during adolescence. Addict Behav 2004; 29: 831-835.
29. Abroms L, Simons-Morton B, Haynie DL, Chen R. Psychosocial predictors of smoking trajectories during middle and high school. Addiction 2005; 100: 852-861.
30. Karp I, O'loughlin J, Paradis G, Hanley J, Difranza J. Smoking trajectories of adolescent novice smokers in a longitudinal study of tobacco use. Ann Epidemiol 2005; 15: 445-452.
31. Brook JS, Pahl K, Ning Y. Peer and parental influences on longitudinal trajectories of smoking among African Americans and Puerto Ricans. Nicotine Tob Res 2006; 8: 639-651.
32. Bernat DH, Erickson DJ, Widome R, Perry CL, Forster JL. Adolescent smoking trajectories: results from a population-based cohort study. J Adolesc Health 2008; 43: 334-340.
33. Brook DW, Brook JS, Zhang C, Whiteman M, Cohen P, Finch SJ. Developmental trajectories of cigarette smoking from adolescence to the early thirties: personality and behavioral risk factors. Nicotine Tob Res 2008; 10: 1283-1291.
34. Chassin L, Presson C, Seo DC, Sherman SJ, Macy J, Wirth RJ et al. Multiple trajectories of cigarette smoking and the intergenera-tional transmission of smoking: a multigenerational, longitudinal study of a midwestern community sample. Health Psychol 2008; 27: 819-828.
35. Lessov-Schlaggar CN, Hops H, Brigham J, Hudmon KS, Andrews JA, Tildesley E et al. Adolescent smoking trajectories and nicotine dependence. Nicotine Tob Res 2008; 10: 341-351.
36. Costello DM, Dierker LC, Jones BL, Rose JS. Trajectories of smoking from adolescence to early adulthood and their psycho-social risk factors. Health Psychol 2008; 27: 811-818.
37. Kenford SL, Wetter DW, Welsch SK, Smith SS, Fiore MC, Baker TB. Progression of college-age cigarette samplers: what influences outcome. Addict Behav 2005; 30: 285-294.
38. Zhu SH, Sun J, Hawkins S, Pierce J, Cummins S. A population study of low-rate smokers: quitting history and instability over time. Health Psychol 2003; 22: 245-252.
39. Shiffman S, Paty JA, Kassel JD, Gnys M, Zettler-Segal M. Smoking behavior and smoking history of tobacco chippers. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 1994; 2: 126-142.
40. Shiffman S, Paty JA, Gnys M, Kassel JD, Elash C. Nicotine withdrawal in chippers and regular smokers: subjective and cognitive effects. Health Psychol 1995; 14: 301-309.
41. Davies GM, Willner P, Morgan MJ. Smoking-related cues elicit craving in tobacco 'chippers': a replication and validation of the two-factor structure of the Questionnaire of Smoking Urges. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 2000; 152: 334-342.
42. Sayette MA, Wertz JM, Martin CS, Cohn JF, Perrott MA, Hobel J. Effects of smoking opportunity on cue-elicited urge: a facial coding analysis. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2003; 11: 218-227.
43. Shiffman S, Paty J. Smoking patterns and dependence: contrasting chippers and heavy smokers. J Abnorm Psychol 2006; 115: 509-523.
44. Piasecki TM, Jorenby DE, Smith SS, Fiore MC, Baker TB. Smoking withdrawal dynamics: I. Abstinence distress in lapsers and abstainers. J Abnorm Psychol 2003; 112: 3-13.
45. McCarthy DE, Piasecki TM, Fiore MC, Baker TB. Life before and after quitting smoking: an electronic diary study. J Abnorm Psychol 2006; 115: 454-466.
46. Piasecki TM, Fiore MC, Baker TB. Profiles in discouragement: two studies of variability in the time course of smoking withdrawal symptoms. J Abnorm Psychol 1998; 107: 238-251.
47. Riggs NR, Chou CP, Li C, Pentz MA. Adolescent to emerging adulthood smoking trajectories: when do smoking trajectories diverge, and do they predict early adulthood nicotine dependence? Nicotine Tob Res 2007; 9: 1147-1154.
48. Lipkus IM, Barefoot JC, Williams RB, Siegler IC. Personality measures as predictors of smoking initiation and cessation in the UNC Alumni Heart Study. Health Psychol 1994; 13: 149-155.
49. Sher KJ, Bartholow BD, Wood MD. Personality and substance use disorders: a prospective study. J Consult Clin Psychol 2000; 68: 818-829.
50. Audrain-McGovern J, Rodriguez D, Patel V, Faith MS, Rodgers K, Cuevas J. How do psychological factors influence adolescent smoking progression? The evidence for indirect effects through tobacco advertising receptivity. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1216-1225.
51. Masse LC, Tremblay RE. Behavior of boys in kindergarten and the onset of substance use during adolescence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54: 62-68.
52. Griesler PC, Hu MC, Schaffran C, Kandel DB. Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and nicotine dependence among adolescents: findings from a prospective, longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008; 47: 1340-1350.
53. Difranza JR, Savageau JA, Fletcher K, Pbert L, O'loughlin J, McNeill AD et al. Susceptibility to nicotine dependence: the development and assessment of nicotine dependence in Youth 2 study. Pediatrics 2007; 120: e974-e983.
54. Difranza JR, Savageau JA, Fletcher K, Pbert L, O'loughlin J, McNeill AD et al. Susceptibility to nicotine dependence: the development and assessment of nicotine dependence in youth 2 study. Pediatrics 2007; 120: e974-e983.
55. Hu MC, Muthen B, Schaffran C, Griesler PC, Kandel DB. Developmental trajectories of criteria of nicotine dependence in adolescence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008; 98: 94-104.
56. Cloninger CR. Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms in alcoholism. Science 1987; 236: 410-416.
57. Zuckerman M, Kuhlman DM. Personality and risk-taking: common biosocial factors. J Pers 2000; 68: 999-1029.
58. Zuckerman M, Cloninger CR. Relationships between Cloninger's, Zuckerman's and Eysenck's dimensions of personality. Person Indiv Diff 1996; 21: 283-285.
59. Galera C, Fombonne E, Chastang JF, Bouvard M. Childhood hyperactivity-inattention symptoms and smoking in adolescence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2005; 78: 101-108.
60. Kollins SH, McClernon FJ, Fuemmeler BF. Association between smoking and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in a population-based sample of young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 1142-1147.
61. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ. Early conduct problems and later life opportunities. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1998; 39: 1097-1108.
62. Barkley RA, Fischer M, Edelbrock CS, Smallish L. The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria: I. An 8-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990; 29: 546-557.
63. Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Chen L, Jones J. ADHD is associated with early initiation of cigarette smoking in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36: 37-44.
64. Lambert NM, Hartsough CS. Prospective study of tobacco smoking and substance dependencies among samples of ADHD and non-ADHD participants. J Learn Disabil 1998; 31: 533-544.
65. Molina BS, Pelham Jr WE. Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. J Abnorm Psychol 2003; 112: 497-507.
66. Rohde P, Kahler CW, Lewinsohn PM, Brown RA. Psychiatric disorders, familial factors, and cigarette smoking: II. Associations with progression to daily smoking. Nicotine Tob Res 2004; 6: 119-132.
67. Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Mick E, Spencer T, Wilens TE, Silva JM et al. Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychol Med 2006; 36: 167-179.
68. Lerman C, Audrain J, Tercyak K, Hawk Jr LW, Bush A, Crystal-Mansour S et al. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and smoking patterns among participants in a smoking-cessation program. Nicotine Tob Res 2001; 3: 353-359.
69. Tercyak KP, Lerman C, Audrain J. Association of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder symptoms with levels of cigarette smoking in a community sample of adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002; 41: 799-805.
70. Rodriguez D, Tercyak KP, Audrain-McGovern J. Effects of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms on development of nicotine dependence from mid adolescence to young adulthood. J Pediatr Psychol 2008; 33: 563-575.
71. Gehricke JG, Whalen CK, Jamner LD, Wigal TL, Steinhoff K. The reinforcing effects of nicotine and stimulant medication in the everyday lives of adult smokers with ADHD: a preliminary examination. Nicotine Tob Res 2006; 8: 37-47.
72. Conners CK, Levin ED, Sparrow E, Hinton SC, Erhardt D, Meck WH et al. Nicotine and attention in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Psychopharmacol Bull 1996; 32: 67-73.
73. Potter AS, Newhouse PA. Effects of acute nicotine administration on behavioral inhibition in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 176: 182-194.
74. Potter AS, Newhouse PA. Acute nicotine improves cognitive deficits in young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2008; 88: 407-417.
75. Levin ED, Conners CK, Sparrow E, Hinton SC, Erhardt D, Meek WH et al. Nicotine effects on adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1996; 123: 55-63.
76. Levin ED, Conners CK, Silva D, Canu W, March J. Effects of chronic nicotine and methylphenidate in adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2001; 9: 83-90.
77. Breslau N, Novak SP, Kessler RC. Psychiatric disorders and stages of smoking. Rial Psychiatry 2004; 55: 69-76.
78. Di Franza JR, Savageau JA, Fletcher K, Pbert L, O'loughlin J, McNeill AD et al. Susceptibility to nicotine dependence: the development and assessment of nicotine dependence in youth 2 study. Pediatrics 2007; 120: e974-e983.
79. Kendler KS, Neale MC, MacLean CJ, Heath AC, Eaves LJ, Kessler RC. Smoking and major depression. A causal analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 36-43.
80. Maes HH, Sullivan PF, Bulik CM, Neale MC, Prescott CA, Eaves LJ et al. A twin study of genetic and environmental influences on tobacco initiation, regular tobacco use and nicotine dependence. Psychol Med 2004; 34: 1251-1261.
81. Li MD, Cheng R, Ma JZ, Swan GE. A meta-analysis of estimated genetic and environmental effects on smoking behavior in male and female adult twins. Addiction 2003; 98: 23-31.
82. Xian H, Scherrer JF, Madden PA, Lyons MJ, Tsuang M, True WR et al. The heritability of failed smoking cessation and nicotine withdrawal in twins who smoked and attempted to quit. Nicotine Tob Res 2003; 5: 245-254.
83. Madden PA, Heath AC, Pedersen NL, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo MJ, Martin NG. The genetics of smoking persistence in men and women: a multicultural study. Rehav Genet 1999; 29: 423-431.
84. True WR, Heath AC, Scherrer JF, Waterman B, Goldberg J, Lin N et al. Genetic and environmental contributions to smoking. Addiction 1997; 92: 1277-1287.
85. Heath AC, Martin NG. Genetic models for the natural history of smoking: evidence for a genetic influence on smoking persistence. Addict Rehav 1993; 18: 19-34.
86. Carmelli D, Swan GE, Robinette D, Fabsitz R. Genetic influence on smoking - a study of male twins. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 829-833.
87. Broms U, Silventoinen K, Madden PA, Heath AC, Kaprio J. Genetic architecture of smoking behavior: a study of Finnish adult twins. Twin Res Hum Genet 2006; 9: 64-72.
88. Pergadia ML, Heath AC, Martin NG, Madden PA. Genetic analyses of DSM-IV nicotine withdrawal in adult twins. Psychol Med 2006; 36: 963-972.
89. Swan GE, Hops H, Wilhelmsen KC, Lessov-Schlaggar CN, Cheng LS, Hudmon KS et al. A genome-wide screen for nicotine dependence susceptibility loci. Am J Med Genet R Neuropsy-chiatr Genet 2006; 141: 354-360.
90. Li MD, Payne TJ, Ma JZ, Lou XY, Zhang D, Dupont RT et al. A genomewide search finds major susceptibility loci for nicotine dependence on chromosome 10 in African Americans. Am J Hum Genet 2006; 79: 745-751.
91. Li MD, Ma JZ, Payne TJ, Lou XY, Zhang D, Dupont RT et al. Genome-wide linkage scan for nicotine dependence in European Americans and its converging results with African Americans in the Mid-South Tobacco Family sample. Mol Psychiatry 2008; 13: 407-416.
92. Bierut LJ, Madden PA, Breslau N, Johnson EO, Hatsukami D, Pomerleau OF et al. Novel genes identified in a high-density genome wide association study for nicotine dependence. Hum Mol Genet 2007; 16: 24-35.
93. Uhl GR, Liu QR, Drgon T, Johnson C, Walther D, Rose JE. Molecular genetics of nicotine dependence and abstinence: whole genome association using 520 000 SNPs. RMC Genet 2007; 8: 10.
94. Uhl GR, Liu QR, Drgon T, Johnson C, Walther D, Rose JE et al. Molecular genetics of successful smoking cessation: convergent genome-wide association study results. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008; 65: 683-693.
95. Arinami T, Ishiguro H, Onaivi ES. Polymorphisms in genes involved in neurotransmission in relation to smoking. Eur J Pharmacol 2000; 410: 215-226.
96. Li MD, Ma JZ, Beuten J. Progress in searching for susceptibility loci and genes for smoking-related behaviour. Clin Genet 2004; 66: 382-392.
97. Berrettini WH, Lerman CE. Pharmacotherapy and pharmacoge-netics of nicotine dependence. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1441-1451.
98. Schnoll RA, Johnson TA, Lerman C. Genetics and smoking behavior. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2007; 9: 349-357.
99. Lessov CN, Swan GE, Ring HZ, Khroyan TV, Lerman C. Genetics and drug use as a complex phenotype. Subst Use Misuse 2004; 39: 1515-1569.
100. Ebstein RP. The molecular genetic architecture of human personality: beyond self-report questionnaires. Mol Psychiatry 2006; 11: 427-445.
101. Lusher JM, Chandler C, Ball D. Dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) is associated with Novelty Seeking (NS) and substance abuse: the saga continues. Mol Psychiatry 2001; 6: 497-499.
102. Brookes K, Xu X, Chen W, Zhou K, Neale B, Lowe N et al. The analysis of 51 genes in DSM-IV combined type attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: association signals in DRD4, DAT1 and 16 other genes. Mol Psychiatry 2006; 11: 934-953.
103. Thapar A, Langley K, Fowler T, Rice F, Turic D, Whittinger N et al. Catechol O-methyltransferase gene variant and birth weight predict early-onset antisocial behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 1275-1278.
104. Caspi A, Langley K, Milne B, Moffitt TE, O'Donovan M, Owen MJ et al. A replicated molecular genetic basis for subtyping antisocial behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008; 65: 203-210.
105. Malmberg K, Wargelius HL, Lichtenstein P, Oreland L, Larsson JO. ADHD and disruptive behavior scores-associations with MAO-A and 5-HTT genes and with platelet MAO-B activity in adolescents. RMC Psychiatry 2008; 8: 28.
106. Williamson PR, Gamble C, Altman DG, Hutton JL. Outcome selection bias in meta-analysis. Stat Methods Med Res 2005; 14: 515-524.
107. Herbst JH, Zonderman AB, McCrae RR, Costa Jr PT. Do the dimensions of the temperament and character inventory map a simple genetic architecture? Evidence from molecular genetics and factor analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1285-1290.
108. Kliethermes CL, Crabbe JC. Genetic independence of mouse measures of some aspects of novelty seeking. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006; 103: 5018-5023.
109. Zhu H, Lee M, Agatsuma S, Hiroi N. Pleiotropic impact of constitutive fosB inactivation on nicotine-induced behavioral alterations and stress-related traits in mice. Hum Mol Genet 2007; 16: 820-836.
110. Gourlay SG, Benowitz NL. Arteriovenous differences in plasma concentration of nicotine and catecholamines and related cardiovascular effects after smoking, nicotine nasal spray, and intravenous nicotine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997; 62: 453-463.
111. Benowitz NL. Nicotine addiction. Prim Care 1999; 26: 611-631.
112. Rose JE, Behm FM, Westman EC, Coleman RE. Arterial nicotine kinetics during cigarette smoking and intravenous nicotine administration: implications for addiction. Drug Alcohol Depend 1999; 56: 99-107.
113. White NM, Hiroi N. Amphetamine cue preference and the neurobiology of drug-seeking. Semin Neurosci 1993; 5: 329-336.
114. Bardo MT, Rowlett JK, Harris MJ. Conditioned place preference using opiate and stimulant drugs: a meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1995; 19: 39-51.
115. Bardo MT, Bevins RA. Conditioned place preference: what does it add to our preclinical understanding of drug reward? Psychopharmacology (Bed) 2000; 153: 31-43.
116. Droungas A, Ehrman RN, Childress AR, O'Brien CR Effect of smoking cues and cigarette availability on craving and smoking behavior. Addict Behav 1995; 20: 657-673.
117. Shiffman S, Paty JA, Gnys M, Kassel JA, Hickcox M. First lapses to smoking: within-subjects analysis of real-time reports. J Consult Clin Psychol 1996; 64: 366-379.
118. Hogarth L, Duka T. Human nicotine conditioning requires explicit contingency knowledge: is addictive behaviour cogni-tively mediated? Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 184: 553-566.
119. Lazev AB, Herzog TA, Brandon TH. Classical conditions of environmental cues to cigarette smoking. Exp Clin Psycho-pharmacol 1999; 7: 56-63.
120. Shiffman S, Gnys M, Richards TJ, Paty JA, Hickcox M, Kassel JD. Temptations to smoke after quitting: a comparison of lapsers and maintainers. Health Psychol 1996; 15: 455-461.
121. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition, Text revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 2000.
122. Hughes JR, Gust SW, Skoog K, Keenan RM, Fenwick JW. Symptoms of tobacco withdrawal. A replication and extension. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48: 52-59.
123. Piasecki TM, Niaura R, Shadel WG, Abrams D, Goldstein M, Fiore MC et al. Smoking withdrawal dynamics in unaided quitters. J Abnorm Psychol 2000; 109: 74-86.
124. Jackson KJ, Martin BR, Changeux JP, Damaj MI. Differential role of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits in physical and affective nicotine withdrawal signs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2008; 325: 302-312.
125. Merritt LL, Martin BR, Walters C, Lichtman AH, Damaj MI. The endogenous cannabinoid system modulates nicotine reward and dependence. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2008; 326: 483-492.
126. Flint J, Valdar W, Shifman S, Mott R. Strategies for mapping and cloning quantitative trait genes in rodents. Nat Rev Genet 2005; 6: 271-286.
127. Matsumoto M, Straub RE, Marenco S, Nicodemus KK, Matsumo-to S, Fujikawa A et al. The evolutionary conserved G protein-coupled receptor SREB2/GPR85 influences brain size, behavior, and vulnerability to schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008; 105: 6133-6138.
128. Papaleo F, Crawley JN, Song J, Lipska BK, Pickel J, Weinberger DR et al. Genetic dissection of the role of catechol-O-methyl-transferase in cognition and stress reactivity in mice. J Neurosci 2008; 28: 8709-8723.
129. Lai WS, Xu B, Westphal KG, Paterlini M, Olivier B, Pavlidis P et al. Aktl deficiency affects neuronal morphology and predisposes to abnormalities in prefrontal cortex functioning. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006; 103: 16906-16911.
130. Mickey BJ, Ducci F, Hodgkinson CA, Langenecker SA, Goldman D, Zubieta JK. Monoamine oxidase A genotype predicts human serotonin 1A receptor availability in vivo. J Neurosci 2008; 28: 11354-11359.
131. Berrendero F, Mendizabal V, Robledo P, Galeote L, Bilkei-Gorzo A, Zimmer A et al. Nicotine-induced antinociception, rewarding effects, and physical dependence are decreased in mice lacking the preproenkephalin gene. J Neurosci 2005; 25: 1103-1112.
132. Berrendero F, Kieffer BL, Maldonado R. Attenuation of nicotine-induced antinociception, rewarding effects, and dependence in mu-opioid receptor knock-out mice. J Neurosci 2002; 22: 10935-10940.
133. Castane A, Valjent E, Ledent C, Parmentier M, Maldonado R, Valverde O. Lack of CBl cannabinoid receptors modifies nicotine behavioural responses, but not nicotine abstinence. Neuro-pharmacology 2002; 43: 857-867.
134. Castane A, Soria G, Ledent C, Maldonado R, Valverde O. Attenuation of nicotine-induced rewarding effects in A(2A) knockout mice. Neuropharmacology 2006; 51: 631-640.
135. Picciotto MR, Zoli M, Rimondini R, Lena C, Marubio LM, Pich EM et al. Acetylcholine receptors containing the beta2 subunit are involved in the reinforcing properties of nicotine. Nature 1998; 391: 173-177.
136. * receptors: sufficient for reward, tolerance, and sensitization. Science 2004; 306: 1029-1032.
137. Maskos U, Molles BE, Pons S, Besson M, Guiard BP, Guilloux JP et al. Nicotine reinforcement and cognition restored by targeted expression of nicotinic receptors. Nature 2005; 436: 103-107.
138. Hiroi N, Agatsuma S. Genetic susceptibility to substance dependence. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10: 336-344.
139. Chao J, Nestler EJ. Molecular neurobiology of drug addiction. Annu Rev Med 2004; 55: 113-132.
140. Hiroi N, Marek GJ, Brown JR, Ye H, Saudou F, Vaidya VA et al. Essential role of the fosB gene in molecular, cellular, and behavioral actions of chronic electroconvulsive seizures. J Neurosci 1998; 18: 6952-6962.
141. Perrotti LI, Hadeishi Y, Ulery PG, Barrot M, Monteggia L, Duman RS et al. Induction of delta FosB in reward-related brain structures after chronic stress. J Neurosci 2004; 24: 10594-10602.
142. Carlezon Jr WA, Duman RS, Nestler EJ. The many faces of CREB. Trends Neurosci 2005; 28: 436-445.
143. Walters CL, Cleck JN, Kuo YC, Blendy JA. Mu-opioid receptor and CREB activation are required for nicotine reward. Neuron 2005; 46: 933-943.
144. Ray R, Jepson C, Wileyto P, Patterson F, Strasser AA, Rukstalis M et al. CREBl haplotypes and the relative reinforcing value of nicotine. Mol Psychiatry 2007; 12: 615-617.
145. Edelstein SB, Castiglione CM, Breakfield XO. Monoamine oxidase activity in normal and Lesch-Nyhan fibroblasts. J Neurochem 1978; 31: 1247-1254.
146. Hotamisligil GS, Breakefield XO. Human monoamine oxidase A gene determines levels of enzyme activity. Am J Hum Genet l991; 49: 383-392.
147. Tivol EA, Shalish C, Schuback DE, Hsu YP, Breakefield XO. Mutational analysis of the human MAOA gene. Am J Med Genet 1996; 67: 92-97.
148. Schuback DE, Mulligan EL, Sims KB, Tivol EA, Greenberg BD, Chang SF et al. Screen for MAOA mutations in target human groups. Am J Med Genet 1999; 88: 25-28.
149. Balciuniene J, Emilsson L, Oreland L, Pettersson U, Jazin E. Investigation of the functional effect of monoamine oxidase polymorphisms in human brain. Hum Genet 2002; 110: 1-7.
150. Castro Costa MR, Edelstein SB, Castiglione CM, Chao H, Breakefield XO. Properties of monoamine oxidase in control and Lesch-Nyhan fibroblasts. Biochem Genet 1980; 18: 577-590.
151. Sabol SZ, Hu S, Hamer D. A functional polymorphism in the monoamine oxidase A gene promoter. Hum Genet 1998; 103: 273-279.
152. Deckert J, Catalano M, Syagailo YV, Bosi M, Okladnova O, DiBella D et al. Excess of high activity monoamine oxidase A gene promoter alleles in female patients with panic disorder. Hum Mol Genet 1999; 8: 621-624.
153. Denney RM, Koch H, Craig IW. Association between monoamine oxidase A activity in human male skin fibroblasts and genotype of the MAOA promoter-associated variable number tandem repeat. Hum Genet 1999; 105: 542-551.
154. Fowler JS, Alia-Klein N, Kriplani A, Logan J, Williams B, Zhu W et al. Evidence that brain MAO A activity does not correspond to MAO A genotype in healthy male subjects. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62: 355-358.
155. McKinney EF, Walton RT, Yudkin P, Fuller A, Haldar NA, Mant D et al. Association between polymorphisms in dopamine metabolic enzymes and tobacco consumption in smokers. Pharmaco-genetics 2000; 10: 483-491.
156. Ito H, Hamajima N, Matsuo K, Okuma K, Sato S, Ueda R et al. Monoamine oxidase polymorphisms and smoking behaviour in Japanese. Pharmacogenetics 2003; 13: 73-79.
157. Jin Y, Chen D, Hu Y, Guo S, Sun H, Lu A et al. Association between monoamine oxidase gene polymorphisms and smoking behaviour in Chinese males. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2005; 9: 557-564.
158. Johnstone EC, Clark TG, Griffiths SE, Murphy MF, Walton RT. Polymorphisms in dopamine metabolic enzymes and tobacco consumption in smokers: seeking confirmation of the association in a follow-up study. Pharmacogenetics 2002; 12: 585-587.
159. Huang S, Cook DG, Hinks LJ, Chen XH, Ye S, Gilg JA et al. CYP2A6, MAOA, DBH, DRD4, and 5HT2A genotypes, smoking behaviour and cotinine levels in 1518 UK adolescents. Pharma-cogenet Genomics 2005; 15: 839-850.
160. Agatsuma S, Lee M, Zhu H, Chen K, Shih JC, Seif I et al. Monoamine oxidase A knockout mice exhibit impaired nicotine preference but normal responses to novel stimuli. Hum Mol Genet 2006; 15: 2721-2731.
161. Lee M, Chen K, Shih JC, Hiroi N. MAO-B knockout mice exhibit deficient habituation of locomotor activity but normal nicotine intake. Genes Brain Behav 2004; 3: 216-227.
162. Shih JC, Chen K, Ridd MJ. Monoamine oxidase: from genes to behavior. Annu Bev Neurosci 1999; 22: 197-217.
163. Carr LA, Basham JK. Effects of tobacco smoke constituents on MPTP-induced toxicity and monoamine oxidase activity in the mouse brain. Life Sci 1991; 48: 1173-1177.
164. Khalil AA, Steyn S, Castagnoli Jr N. Isolation and characterization of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor from tobacco leaves. Chem Bes Toxicol 2000; 13: 31-35.
165. Hauptmann N, Shih JC. 2-Naphthylamine, a compound found in cigarette smoke, decreases both monoamine oxidase A and B catalytic activity. Life Sci 2001; 68: 1231-1241.
166. Herraiz T, Chaparro C. Human monoamine oxidase is inhibited by tobacco smoke: beta-carboline alkaloids act as potent and reversible inhibitors. Biochem Biophys Bes Commun 2005; 326: 378-386.
167. Fowler JS, Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Pappas N, Logan J, Shea C et al. Brain monoamine oxidase A inhibition in cigarette smokers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93: 14065-14069.
168. Guillem K, Vouillac C, Azar MR, Parsons LH, Koob GF, Cador M et al. Monoamine oxidase inhibition dramatically increases the motivation to self-administer nicotine in rats. J Neurosci 2005; 25: 8593-8600.
169. Villegier AS, Salomon L, Granon S, Changeux JP, Belluzzi JD, Leslie FM et al. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors allow locomotor and rewarding responses to nicotine. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31: 1704-1713.
170. Guillem K, Vouillac C, Azar MR, Parsons LH, Koob GF, Cador M et al. Monoamine oxidase A rather than monoamine oxidase B inhibition increases nicotine reinforcement in rats. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 24: 3532-3540.
171. Berlin I, Said S, Spreux-Varoquaux O, Launay JM, Olivares R, Millet V et al. A reversible monoamine oxidase A inhibitor (moclobemide) facilitates smoking cessation and abstinence in heavy, dependent smokers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995; 58: 444-452.
172. Houtsmuller EJ, Thornton JA, Stitzer ML. Effects of selegiline (L-deprenyl) during smoking and short-term abstinence. Psycho-pharmacology (Berl) 2002; 163: 213-220.
173. George TP, Vessicchio JC, Termine A, Jatlow PI, Kosten TR, O'Malley SS. A preliminary placebo-controlled trial of selegiline hydrochloride for smoking cessation. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 53: 136-143.
174. Biberman R, Neumann R, Katzir I, Gerber Y. A randomized controlled trial of oral selegiline plus nicotine skin patch compared with placebo plus nicotine skin patch for smoking cessation. Addiction 2003; 98: 1403-1407.
175. Popova NK, Vishnivetskaya GB, Ivanova EA, Skrinskaya JA, Seif I. Altered behavior and alcohol tolerance in transgenic mice lacking MAO A: a comparison with effects of MAO A inhibitor clorgyline. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000; 67: 719-727.
176. Zhang W, Kilicarslan T, Tyndale RF, Sellers EM. Evaluation of methoxsalen, tranylcypromine, and tryptamine as specific and selective CYP2A6 inhibitors in vitro. DrugMetab Dispos 2001; 29: 897-902.
177. Azzaro AJ, Demarest KT. Inhibitory effects of type A and type B monoamine oxidase inhibitors on synaptosomal accumulation of [3H] dopamine: a reflection of antidepressant potency. Biochem Pharmacol 1982; 31: 2195-2197.
178. Lai JC, Leung TK, Guest JF, Lim L, Davison AN. The monoamine oxidase inhibitors clorgyline and L-deprenyl also affect the uptake of dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin by rat brain synaptosomal preparations. Biochem Pharmacol 1980; 29: 2763-2767.
179. Moron JA, Perez V, Fernandez-Alvarez E, Marco JL, Unzeta M. 'In vitro' effect of some 5-hydroxy-indolalkylamine derivatives on monoamine uptake system. J Neural Transm Suppl 1998; 52: 343-349.
180. Tekes K, Magyar K. Effect of MAO inhibitors on the high-affinity reuptake of biogenic amines in rat subcortical regions. Neuro-biology (Bp) 2000; 8: 257-264.
181. Janhunen S, Mielikainen P, Paldanius P, Tuominen RK, Ahtee L, Kaakkola S. The effect of nicotine in combination with various dopaminergic drugs on nigrostriatal dopamine in rats. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2005; 371: 480-491.
182. Itzhak Y, Kassim CO. Clorgyline displays high affinity for sigma binding sites in C57BL/6 mouse brain. Eur J Pharmacol 1990; 176: 107-108.
183. Itzhak Y, Stein I, Zhang SH, Kassim CO, Cristante D. Binding of sigma-ligands to C57BL/6 mouse brain membranes: effects of monoamine oxidase inhibitors and subcellular distribution studies suggest the existence of sigma-receptor subtypes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1991; 257: 141-148.
184. Seth P, Fei YJ, Li HW, Huang W, Leibach FH, Ganapathy V. Cloning and functional characterization of a sigma receptor from rat brain. J Neurochem 1998; 70: 922-931.
185. Horan B, Gardner EL, Dewey SL, Brodie JD, Ashby Jr CR. The selective sigma(l) receptor agonist, l-(3,4-dimethoxyphenethyl)-4-(phenylpropyl)piperazine (SA4503), blocks the acquisition of the conditioned place preference response to (-)-nicotine in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2001; 426: R1-R2.
186. Klein TA, Neumann J, Reuter M, Hennig J, von Cramon DY, Ullsperger M. Genetically determined differences in learning from errors. Science 2007; 318: 1642-1645.
187. Hughes JR, Stead LF, Lancaster T. Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Bev 2007; 1: CD000031.
188. Hyman SE, Malenka RC, Nestler EJ. Neural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory. Annu Bev Neurosci 2006; 29: 565-598.
189. Brunzell DH, Russell DS, Picciotto MR. In vivo nicotine treatment regulates mesocorticolimbic CREB and ERK signaling in C57B1/6J mice. J Neurochem 2003; 84: 1431-1441.
190. Steiner RC, Heath CJ, Picciotto MR. Nicotine-induced phosphor-ylation of ERK in mouse primary cortical neurons: evidence for involvement of glutamatergic signaling and CaMKII. J Neurochem 2007; 103: 666-678.
191. Dalley JW, Fryer TD, Brichard L, Robinson ES, Theobald DE, Laane K et al. Nucleus accumbens D2/3 receptors predict trait impulsivity and cocaine reinforcement. Science 2007; 315: 1267-1270.
192. Kendler KS, Thornton LM, Pedersen NL. Tobacco consumption in Swedish twins reared apart and reared together. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57: 886-892.
193. Erblich J, Lerman C, Self DW, Diaz GA, Bovbjerg DH. Effects of dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) and transporter (SLC6A3) polymorphisms on smoking cue-induced cigarette craving among African-American smokers. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10: 407-414.
194. Horan B, Smith M, Gardner EL, Lepore M, Ashby Jr CR. Nicotine produces conditioned place preference in Lewis, but not Fischer 344 rats. Synapse 1997; 26: 93-94.
195. Haile CN, Hiroi N, Nestler EJ, Kosten TA. Differential behavioral responses to cocaine are associated with dynamics of mesolimbic dopamine proteins in Lewis and Fischer 344 rats. Synapse 2001; 41: 179-190.
196. Brower VG, Fu Y, Matta SG, Sharp BM. Rat strain differences in nicotine self-administration using an unlimited access paradigm. Brain Res 2002; 930: 12-20.
197. Piazza PV, Le Moal ML. Pathophysiological basis of vulnerability to drug abuse: role of an interaction between stress, glucocorti-coids, and dopaminergic neurons. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1996; 36: 359-378.
198. Kreek MJ, Nielsen DA, Butelman ER, LaForge KS. Genetic influences on impulsivity, risk taking, stress responsivity and vulnerability to drug abuse and addiction. Nat Neurosci 2005; 8: 1450-1457.
199. Paulus MP. Decision-making dysfunctions in psychiatry-altered homeostatic processing? Science 2007; 318: 602-606.
200. Goldman D, Oroszi G, Ducci F. The genetics of addictions: uncovering the genes. Nat Rev Genet 2005; 6: 521-532.
201. Hiroi N, Brown JR, Haile CN, Ye H, Greenberg ME, Nestler EJ. FosB mutant mice: loss of chronic cocaine induction of Fos-related proteins and heightened sensitivity to cocaine's psychomotor and rewarding effects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 10397-10402.
202. Walters CL, Blendy JA. Different requirements for cAMP response element binding protein in positive and negative reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse. J Neurosci 2001; 21: 9438-9444.