Endocrine and inflammatory alterations in post-traumatic stress disorder

Expert Review of Endocrinology and Metabolism

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 91-122

  Wessa, Michèle ^a   Rohleder, Nicolas ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HEIDELBERG   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Cortisol; Epinephrine; Hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis; Inflammatory cytokines; Norepinephrine; Post traumatic stress disorder; PTSD; Stress reactivity; Sympatho adrenal medullary system; Trauma

Indexed keywords

CATECHOLAMINE; HYDROCORTISONE; NORADRENALIN; PRASTERONE; PRASTERONE SULFATE;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; CATECHOLAMINE BLOOD LEVEL; CATECHOLAMINE RELEASE; CATECHOLAMINE URINE LEVEL; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; ENDOCRINE FUNCTION TEST; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; HORMONAL REGULATION; HORMONE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; HYDROCORTISONE URINE LEVEL; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; INFLAMMATION; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MEDIATOR RELEASE; MOOD DISORDER; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN CEREBROSPINAL FLUID LEVEL; REVIEW; STRESS;

EID: 67649232611     PISSN: 17446651     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/17446651.2.1.91     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, USA (2000).
2. Boscarino JA. Post-traumatic stress disorder and physical illness: results from clinical and epidemiologic studies. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1032, 141-153 (2004).
3. Boscarino JA. Post-traumatic stress disorder and mortality among U.S. Army veterans 30 years after military service. Ann. Epidemiol. 16, 248-256 (2006).
4. Gander ML, von Känel R. Myocardial infarction and post-traumatic stress disorder: frequency, outcome, and atherosclerotic mechanisms. Eur. J. Cardiovasc. Prev. Rehabil. 13, 165-172 (2006).
5. Solomon SD, Davidson JR. Trauma: prevalence, impairment, service use, and cost. J. Clin. Psychiatry 58(Suppl. 9), 5-11 (1997).
6. Bichescu D, Schauer M, Saleptsi E et al. Long-term consequences of traumatic experiences: an assessment of former political detainees in Romania. Clin. Pract. Epidemol. Ment. Health 1, 17 (2005).
7. Kohn R, Levav I, Garcia ID, Machuca ME, Tamashiro R. Prevalence, risk factors and aging vulnerability for psychopathology following a natural disaster in a developing country. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 20, 835-841 (2005).
8. Kuch K, Cox BJ, Evans RJ. Posttraumatic stress disorder and motor vehicle accidents: a multidisciplinary overview. Can. J. Psychiatry 41, 429-434 (1996).
9. Charney DS. Psychobiological mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability: implications for successful adaptation to extreme stress. Am. J. Psychiatry 161, 195-216 (2004).
10. Yehuda R, Flory JD, Southwick S, Charney DS. Developing an agenda for translational studies of resilience and vulnerability following trauma exposure. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1071, 379-396 (2006).
11. McEwen BS, Stellar E. Stress and the individual. Mechanisms leading to disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 153, 2093-2101 (1993).
12. McEwen BS. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N. Engl. J. Med. 338, 171-179 (1998).
13. Seeman TE, McEwen BS, Rowe JW, Singer BH. Allostatic load as a marker of cumulative biological risk: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 4770-4775 (2001).
14. Karlamangla AS, Singer BH, McEwen BS, Rowe JW, Seeman TE. Allostatic load as a predictor of functional decline. MacArthur studies of successful aging. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 55, 696-710 (2002).
15. Glover DA, Stuber M, Poland RE. Allostatic load in women with and without PTSD symptoms. Psychiatry 69, 191-203 (2006).
16. Krabbe KS, Pedersen M, Bruunsgaard H. Inflammatory mediators in the elderly. Exp. Gerontol. 39, 687-699 (2004).
17. Raison CL, Miller AH. When not enough is too much: the role of insufficient glucocorticoid signaling in the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 160, 1554-1565 (2003).
18. von Känel R, Hepp U, Kraemer B et al. Evidence for low-grade systemic proinflammatory activity in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. (2006)
19. Bremner JD, Licinio J, Darnell A et al. Elevated CSF corticotropin-releasing factor concentrations in post-traumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 154, 624-629 (1997).
20. Baker DG, Ekhator NN, Kasckow JW et al. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid interleukin-6 concentrations in post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuroimmunomodulation 9, 209-217 (2001).
21. Baker DG, West SA, Nicholson WE et al. Serial CSF corticotropin-releasing hormone levels and adrenocortical activity in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 156, 585-588. (1999).
22. Wolf OT, Kirschbaum C. Actions of dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfate in the central nervous system: effects on cognition and emotion in animals and humans. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 30, 264-288 (1999).
23. Delahanty DL, Raimonde AJ, Spoonster E, Cullado M. Injury severity, prior trauma history, urinary cortisol levels, and acute PTSD in motor vehicle accident victims. J. Anxiety Disord. 17, 149-164 (2003).
24. Delahanty DL, Raimonde AJ, Spoonster E. Initial post-traumatic urinary cortisol levels predict subsequent PTSD symptoms in motor vehicle accident victims. Biol. Psychiatry 48, 940-947. (2000).
25. Glover DA, Poland RE. Urinary cortisol and catecholamines in mothers of child cancer survivors with and without PTSD. Psychoneuroendocrinology 27, 805-819 (2002).
26. Mason JW, Wang S, Yehuda R et al. Psychogenic lowering of urinary cortisol levels linked to increased emotional numbing and a shame-depressive syndrome in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychosom. Med. 63, 387-401. (2001).
27. Yehuda R, Kahana B, Binder-Brynes K et al. Low urinary cortisol excretion in Holocaust survivors with post-traumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 152, 982-986 (1995).
28. Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Bierer LM. Cortisol levels in adult offspring of Holocaust survivors: relation to PTSD symptom severity in the parent and child. Psychoneuroendocrinology 27, 171-180 (2002).
29. Pitman RK, Orr SP. Twenty-four hour urinary cortisol and catecholamine excretion in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 27, 245-247 (1990).
30. Rohleder N, Joksimovic L, Wolf JM, Kirschbaum C. Hypocortisolism and increased glucocorticoid sensitivity of pro-inflammatory cytokine production in Bosnian war refugees with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 55, 745-751 (2004).
31. Young EA, Breslau N. Cortisol and catecholamines in post-traumatic stress disorder: an epidemiologic community study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 394-401 (2004).
32. Inslicht SS, Marmar CR, Neylan TC et al. Increased cortisol in women with intimate partner violence-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31, 825-838 (2006).
33. Wessa M, Rohleder N, Kirschbaum C, Flor H. Altered cortisol awakening response in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31, 209-215 (2006).
34. Delahanty DL, Nugent NR, Christopher NC, Walsh M. Initial urinary epinephrine and cortisol levels predict acute PTSD symptoms in child trauma victims. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30, 121-128 (2005).
35. Hawk LW, Dougall AL, Ursano RJ, Baum A. Urinary catecholamines and cortisol in recent-onset post-traumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Psychosom. Med. 62, 423-434 (2000).
36. Yehuda R, Teicher MH, Trestman RL, Levengood RA, Siever LJ. Cortisol regulation in post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression: a chronobiological analysis. Biol. Psychiatry 40, 79-88. (1996).
37. Yehuda R, Golier JA, Kaufman S. Circadian rhythm of salivary cortisol in Holocaust survivors with and without PTSD. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 998-1000 (2005).
38. Aardal-Eriksson E, Eriksson TE, Thorell LH. Salivary cortisol, post-traumatic stress symptoms, and general health in the acute phase and during 9-month follow-up. Biol. Psychiatry 50, 986-993 (2001).
39. Pruessner JC, Wolf OT, Hellhammer DH et al. Free cortisol levels after awakening: a reliable biological marker for the assessment of adrenocortical activity. Life Sci. 61, 2539-2549 (1997).
40. Wust S, Wolf J, Hellhammer DH et al. The cortisol awakening response - normal values and confounds. Noise Health 2, 79-88 (2000).
41. Schmidt-Reinwald A, Pruessner JC, Hellhammer DH et al. The cortisol response to awakening in relation to different challenge tests and a 12-hour cortisol rhythm. Life Sci. 64, 1653-1660 (1999).
42. Edwards S, Clow A, Evans P, Hucklebridge F. Exploration of the awakening cortisol response in relation to diurnal cortisol secretory activity. Life Sci. 68, 2093-2103 (2001).
43. Luecken LJ, Dausch B, Gulla V, Hong R, Compas BE. Alterations in morning cortisol associated with PTSD in women with breast cancer. J. Psychosom. Res. 56, 13-15 (2004).
44. Roth G, Ekblad S, Agren H. A longitudinal study of PTSD in a sample of adult mass-evacuated Kosovars, some of whom returned to their home country. Eur. Psychiatry 21, 152-159 (2006).
45. Buchanan TW, Kern S, Allen JS, Tranel D, Kirschbaum C. Circadian regulation of cortisol following hippocampal damage in humans. Biol. Psychiatry 56, 651-656 (2004).
46. Erickson K, Drevets W, Schulkin J. Glucocorticoid regulation of diverse cognitive functions in normal and pathological emotional states. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 27, 233-246 (2003).
47. Pico-Alfonso MA, Garcia-Linares MI, Celda-Navarro N, Herbert J, Martinez M. Changes in cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone in women victims of physical and psychological intimate partner violence. Biol. Psychiatry 56, 233-240 (2004).
48. Carrion VG, Weems CF, Ray RD et al. Diurnal salivary cortisol in pediatric post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 51, 575-582 (2002).
49. Young EA, Tolman R, Witkowski K, Kaplan R. Salivary cortisol and post-traumatic stress disorder in a low-income community sample of women. Biol. Psychiatry 55(6), 621-626 (2004).
50. Heinrichs M, Wagner D, Schoch W et al. Predicting post-traumatic stress symptoms from pretraumatic risk factors: a 2-year prospective follow-up study in firefighters. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 2276-2286 (2005).
51. de Kloet CS, Vermetten E, Geuze E et al. Assessment of HPA-axis function in post-traumatic stress disorder: pharmacological and non-pharmacological challenge tests, a review. J. Psychiatr. Res. 40, 550-567 (2006).
52. Yehuda R. Advances in understanding neuroendocrine alterations in PTSD and their therapeutic implications. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1071, 137-166 (2006).
53. Yehuda R, Golier JA, Yang RK, Tischler L. Enhanced sensitivity to glucocorticoids in peripheral mononuclear leukocytes in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 55, 1110-1116 (2004).
54. Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Golier JA, Grossman R, Bierer LM. Effects of trauma exposure on the cortisol response to dexamethasone administration in PTSD and major depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29, 389-404 (2004).
55. de Kloet ER, van der Vies J, de Wied D. The site of the suppressive action of dexamethasone on pituitary-adrenal activity. Endocrinology 94, 61-73 (1974).
56. Miller AH, Spencer RL, Pulera M et al. Adrenal steroid receptor activation in rat brain and pituitary following dexamethasone: implications for the dexamethasone suppression test. Biol. Psychiatry 32, 850-869 (1992).
57. Cole MA, Kim PJ, Kalman BA, Spencer RL. Dexamethasone suppression of corticosteroid secretion: evaluation of the site of action by receptor measures and functional studies. Psychoneuroendocrinology 25, 151-167 (2000).
58. Meijer OC, de Lange EC, Breimer DD et al. Penetration of dexamethasone into brain glucocorticoid targets is enhanced in mdr1A P-glycoprotein knockout mice. Endocrinology 139, 1789-1793 (1998).
59. Kudler H, Davidson J, Meador K, Lipper S, Ely T. The DST and post-traumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 144, 1068-1071 (1987).
60. Yehuda R, Boisoneau D, Lowy MT, Giller EL Jr. Dose-response changes in plasma cortisol and lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptors following dexamethasone administration in combat veterans with and without post-traumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 583-593. (1995).
61. Griffin MG, Resick PA, Yehuda R. Enhanced cortisol suppression following dexamethasone administration in domestic violence survivors. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 1192-1199 (2005).
62. Stein MB, Yehuda R, Koverola C, Hanna C. Enhanced dexamethasone suppression of plasma cortisol in adult women traumatized by childhood sexual abuse. Biol. Psychiatry 42, 680-686 (1997).
63. Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Grossman R, Golier JA, Wong C. The cortisol and glucocorticoid receptor response to low dose dexamethasone administration in aging combat veterans and Holocaust survivors with and without post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 52, 393-403 (2002).
64. Newport DJ, Heim C, Bonsall R, MillerAH, Nemeroff CB. Pituitary-adrenal responses to standard and low-dose dexamethasone suppression tests in adult survivors of child abuse. Biol. Psychiatry 55, 10-20 (2004).
65. Miller GE, Chen E, Zhou E. If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychol. Bull. (In press).
66. Duval F, Crocq MA, Guillon MS et al. Increased adrenocorticotropin suppression after dexamethasone administration in sexually abused adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1032, 273-275 (2004).
67. Duval F, Crocq MA, Guillon MS et al. Increased adrenocorticotropin suppression following dexamethasone administration in sexually abused adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29, 1281-1289 (2004).
68. Lipschitz DS, Rasmusson AM, Yehuda R et al. Salivary cortisol responses to dexamethasone in adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 42, 1310-1317 (2003).
69. Lindley SE, Carlson EB, Benoit M. Basal and dexamethasone suppressed salivary cortisol concentrations in a community sample of patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 55, 940-945 (2004).
70. Golier JA, Schmeidler J, Legge J, Yehuda R. Enhanced cortisol suppression to dexamethasone associated with Gulf War deployment. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31(10), 1181-1189 (2006).
71. Neylan TC, Brunet A, Pole N et al. PTSD symptoms predict waking salivary cortisol levels in police officers. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30, 373-381 (2005).
72. Liberzon I, Abelson JL, Flagel SB, Raz J, Young EA. Neuroendocrine and psychophysiologic responses in PTSD: a symptom provocation study. Neuropsychopharmacology 21, 40-50. (1999).
73. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E et al. Cortisol response to a cognitive stress challenge in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) related to childhood abuse. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28, 733-750 (2003).
74. Elzinga BM, Schmahl CG, Vermetten E, van Dyck R, Bremner JD. Higher cortisol levels following exposure to traumatic reminders in abuse-related PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 1656-1665 (2003).
75. Santa Ana EJ, Saladin ME, Back SE et al. PTSD and the HPA axis: differences in response to the cold pressor task among individuals with child vs adult trauma. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31, 501-509 (2006).
76. Olff M, Guzelcan Y, de Vries GJ, Assies J, Gersons BP. HPA- and HPT-axis alterations in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31(10), 1220-1230 (2006).
77. Rasmusson AM, Vasek J, Lipschitz DS et al. An increased capacity for adrenal DHEA release is associated with decreased avoidance and negative mood symptoms in women with PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 1546-1557 (2004).
78. Yehuda R, Brand SR, Golier JA, Yang RK. Clinical correlates of DHEA associated with post-traumatic stress disorder. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 114, 187-193 (2006).
79. Spivak B, Maayan R, Kotler M et al. Elevated circulatory level of GABA(A) - antagonistic neurosteroids in patients with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Med. 30, 1227-1231 (2000).
80. Sondergaard HP, Hansson LO, Theorell T. Elevated blood levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate vary with symptom load in post-traumatic stress disorder: findings from a longitudinal study of refugees in Sweden. Psychother. Psychosom. 71, 298-303 (2002).
81. Jogems-Kosterman BJ, de Knijff DW, Kusters R, van Hoof JJ. Basal cortisol and DHEA levels in women with borderline personality disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. (2006)
82. van Niekerk JK, Huppert FA, Herbert J. Salivary cortisol and DHEA: association with measures of cognition and well-being in normal older men, and effects of three months of DHEA supplementation. Psychoneuroendocrinology 26, 591-612 (2001).
83. Morgan CA 3rd, Southwick S, Hazlett G et al. Relationships among plasma dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate and cortisol levels, symptoms of dissociation, and objective performance in humans exposed to acute stress. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 819-825 (2004).
84. Butterfield MI, Stechuchak KM, Connor KM et al. Neuroactive steroids and suicidality in post-traumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 380-382 (2005).
85. Rasmusson AM, Vythilingam M, Morgan CA 3rd. The neuroendocrinology of post-traumatic stress disorder: new directions. CNS Spectr. 8(9), 651-656, 665-657 (2003).
86. O'Donnell T, Hegadoren KM, Coupland NC. Noradrenergic mechanisms in the pathophysiology of post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychobiology 50, 273-283 (2004).
87. Yehuda R, Southwick S, Giller EL, Ma X, Mason JW. Urinary catecholamine excretion and severity of PTSD symptoms in Vietnam combat veterans. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 180, 321-325 (1992).
88. Cahill L. Similar neural mechanisms for emotion-induced memory impairment and enhancement. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 13123-13124 (2003).
89. Pitman RK. Post-traumatic stress disorder, hormones, and memory. Biol. Psychiatry 26, 221-223 (1989).
90. Geracioti TD Jr., Baker DG, Ekhator NN et al. CSF norepinephrine concentrations in post-traumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 158, 1227-1230 (2001).
91. Strawn JR, Ekhator NN, Horn PS, BakerDG, Geracioti TD Jr. Blood pressure and cerebrospinal fluid norepinephrine in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychosom. Med. 66, 757-759 (2004).
92. Kosten TR, Mason JW, Giller EL, Ostroff RB, Harkness L. Sustained urinary norepinephrine and epinephrine elevation in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 12, 13-20 (1987).
93. Lemieux AM, Coe CL. Abuse-related post-traumatic stress disorder: evidence for chronicneuroendocrine activation in women. Psychosom. Med. 57, 105-115 (1995).
94. De Bellis MD, Baum AS, Birmaher B et al. A.E. Bennett Research Award. Developmental traumatology. Part I: Biological stress systems. Biol. Psychiatry 45, 1259-1270. (1999).
95. Spivak B, Vered Y, Graff E et al. Low platelet-poor plasma concentrations of serotonin in patients with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 45, 840-845 (1999).
96. Mellman TA, Kumar A, Kulick-Bell R, Kumar M, Nolan B. Nocturnal/daytime urine noradrenergic measures and sleep in combat-related PTSD. Biol. Psychiatry 38, 174-179 (1995).
97. Bierer LM, Tischler L, Labinsky E et al. Clinical correlates of 24-h cortisol and norepinephrine excretion among subjects seeking treatment following the world trade centre attacks on 9/11. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1071, 514-520 (2006).
98. Yatham LN, Sacamano J, Kusumakar V. Assessment of noradrenergic functioning in patients with non-combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: a study with desmethylimipramine and orthostatic challenges. Psychiatry Res. 63, 1-6 (1996).
99. McFall ME, Veith RC, Murburg MM. Basal sympathoadrenal function in post-traumatic distress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 31, 1050-1056 (1992).
100. Blanchard EB, Kolb LC, Prins A, Gates S, McCoy GC. Changes in plasma norepinephrine to combat-related stimuli among Vietnam veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 179, 371-373 (1991).
101. Murburg MM, McFall ME, Lewis N, Veith RC. Plasma norepinephrine kinetics in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 38, 819-825 (1995).
102. Yehuda R, Siever LJ, Teicher MH et al. Plasma norepinephrine and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol concentrations and severity of depression in combat post-traumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 44, 56-63 (1998).
103. McFall ME, Murburg MM, Ko GN, Veith RC. Autonomic responses to stress in Vietnam combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 27, 1165-1175 (1990).
104. Southwick SM, Krystal JH, Morgan CA et al. Abnormal noradrenergic function in post-traumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 50, 266-274 (1993).
105. Morgan CA 3rd, Grillon C, Southwick SM et al. Yohimbine facilitated acoustic startle in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 117, 466-471 (1995).
106. Besedovsky HO, del Rey A. Immune-neuro-endocrine interactions: facts and hypotheses. Endocr. Rev. 17, 64-102 (1996).
107. Sapolsky RM, Romero LM, Munck AU. How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocr. Rev. 21, 55-89 (2000).
108. Bierhaus A, Wolf J, Andrassy M et al. A mechanism converting psychosocial stress into mononuclear cell activation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 1920-1925 (2003).
109. Sondergaard HP, Hansson LO, Theorell T. The inflammatory markers C-reactive protein and serum amyloidA in refugees with and without post-traumatic stress disorder. Clin. Chim. Acta 342, 93-98 (2004).
110. Tucker P, Ruwe WD, Masters B et al. Neuroimmune and cortisol changes in selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and placebo treatment of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 56, 121-128 (2004).
111. Spivak B, Shohat B, Mester R et al. Elevated levels of serum interleukin-1β in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 42, 345-348 (1997).
112. Maes M, Lin AH, Delmeire L et al. Elevated serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-6 receptor concentrations in post-traumatic stress disorder following accidental man-made traumatic events. Biol. Psychiatry 45, 833-839 (1999).
113. Kawamura N, Kim Y, Asukai N. Suppression of cellular immunity in men with a past history of post-traumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 158, 484-486. (2001).
114. Woods AB, Page GG, O'Campo P et al. The mediation effect of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms on the relationship of intimate partner violence and IFN-γ levels. Am. J. Community Psychol. 36, 159-175 (2005).
115. Vedhara K, Fox JD, Wang EC. The measurement of stress-related immune dysfunction in psychoneuroimmunology. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 23, 699-715 (1999).
116. Aurer A, Aurer-Kozelj J, Stavljenic-Rukavina A et al. Inflammatory mediators in saliva of patients with rapidly progressive periodontitis during war stress induced incidence increase. Coll. Antropol. 23, 117-124 (1999).
117. Segman RH, Shefi N, Goltser-Dubner T et al. Peripheral blood mononuclear cell gene expression profiles identify emergent post-traumatic stress disorder among trauma survivors. Mol. Psychiatry 10, 500-513, 425 (2005).
118. Wheler GH, Brandon D, Clemons A et al. Cortisol production rate in post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91, 3486-3489 (2006).
119. Kirschbaum C, Pirke K-M, Hellhammer DH. The "Trier Social Stress Test" - a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology 28, 76-81 (1993).
120. Dickerson SS, Kemeny ME. Acute stressors and cortisol responses: a theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychol. Bull. 130, 355-391 (2004).
121. May FS, Chen QC, Gilbertson MW, Shenton ME, Pitman RK. Cavum septum pellucidum in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: relationship to post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 55, 656-658 (2004).
122. Gilbertson MW, Shenton ME, Ciszewski A et al. Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nat. Neurosci. 5, 1242-1247. (2002).
123. Yehuda R, Engel SM, Brand SR et al. Transgenerational effects of post-traumatic stress disorder in babies of mothers exposed to the World Trade Center attacks during pregnancy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90, 4115-4118 (2005).
124. Levitt NS, Lambert EV, Woods D et al. Impaired glucose tolerance and elevated blood pressure in low birth weight, nonobese, young South African adults: early programming of cortisol axis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85, 4611-4618 (2000).
125. Danesh J. Smoldering arteries? Low-grade inflammation and coronary heart disease. JAMA 282, 2169-2171 (1999).
126. Hansson GK, Libby P. The immune response in atherosclerosis: a double-edged sword. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 6, 508-519 (2006).
127. Sjoholm A, Nystrom T. Inflammation and the etiology of type2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 22, 4-10 (2006).
128. Watkins LR, Maier SF. Immune regulation of central nervous system functions: from sickness responses to pathological pain. J. Intern. Med. 257, 139-155 (2005).
129. Dantzer R. Cytokine-induced sickness behavior: where do we stand? Brain Behav. Immun. 15, 7-24 (2001).
130. Heim C, Ehlert U, Hellhammer DH. The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology 25, 1-35. (2000).
131. Southwick SM, Axelrod SR, Wang S et al. Twenty-four-hour urine cortisol in combat veterans with PTSD and comorbid borderline personality disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 191, 261-262 (2003).
132. Mason JW, Giller EL, Kosten TR, Harkness L. Elevation of urinary norepinephrine/cortisol ratio in post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 176, 498-502 (1988).
133. Miller RJ, Sutherland AG, Hutchison JD, Alexander DA. C-reactive protein and interleukin6 receptor in post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. Cytokine 13, 253-255 (2001).