Current concepts review: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia

Foot and Ankle International

Volumn 29, Issue 11, 2008, Pages 1158-1167

  Digiovanni, Christopher W ^a,b  

^a Orthopaedic Residency Program ^*

^b BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANCROD; ARGATROBAN; DABIGATRAN; DANAPAROID; DEXTRAN; EFEGATRAN; FONDAPARINUX; HEPARIN; HIRULOG; IDRAPARINUX; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; LEPIRUDIN; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; RAZAXABAN; RIVAROXABAN; THROMBOCYTE FACTOR 4; VITAMIN K GROUP; WARFARIN; XIMELAGATRAN;

ALGORITHM; ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BLEEDING; CARDIOPULMONARY INSUFFICIENCY; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; FOLLOW UP; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HEMATOLOGY; HEPARIN INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA; HOSPITAL PATIENT; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; LIMB; MONITORING; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; ORTHOPEDICS; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEROLOGY; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SURGICAL PATIENT; THROMBOCYTE; THROMBOCYTE COUNT; THROMBOSIS; ULTRASOUND; VASCULAR SURGERY; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

FIBRINOLYTIC AGENTS; HEPARIN; HUMANS; ORTHOPEDIC PROCEDURES; RISK FACTORS; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

EID: 56549101635     PISSN: 10711007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3113/FAI.2008.1158     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. Alving, BM: A. How I treat heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. Blood. 2003 101(1):31-7, 2003.
2. Anderson, FA Jr.; Hirsh, J; White, K; Fitzgerald, RH Jr. Temporal trends in preventionof venous thromboembolism following primary total hip or knee arthroplasty 1996-2001: findings from the Hip and Knee Registry. Chest. 124:349S-356S, 2003.
3. Arepally, G; Cines, DB: Pathogenesis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. Autoimmun. Rev. 1:125-132, 2002.
4. Arepally, GM; Ortel, TL: Clinical practice. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. N Engl. J. Med. 355:809-817, 2006.
5. Arthur, CK; Grant, SJB; Murray, WK; et al.: Heparin-associated acute adrenal insufficiency. Aust. N Z J Med. 15:454-5, 1985.
6. Baird, RA; Convery, R: Arterial thromboembolism in patients receiving systemic heparin therapy: a complication associated with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. J Bone Joint Surg. Am. 59:1061-1064, 1977.
7. Barber, FA; Burton, WC; Guyer, R: The heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis syndrome. Report of a case. J Bone Joint Surg. Am. 69:935-937, 1987.
8. Bauer, TL; Arepally, G; Konkle, BA; et al.: Prevalence of heparin-associated antibodies without thrombosis in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. Circulation. 95:1242-6, 1997.
9. Bicalho, PS; Hozack, WJ; Rothman, RH; Eng, K: Treatment of early symptomatic pulmonary embolism after total joint arthroplasty. J. Arthroplasty. 11:522-524, 1996.
10. Blank, M; Shoenfeld, Y; Tavor, S; et al.: Anti-platelet factor 4/heparin antibodies from patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia provoke direct activation of microvascular endothelial cells. Int. Immunol. 14:121-9, 2002.
11. Caprini, JA: Thrombosis risk assessment as a guide to quality patient care. Dis. Mon. 51:70-78, 2005.
12. Caprini, JA; Tapson, VF; Hyers, TM; et al.: Treatment of venous thromboembolism: adherence to guidelines and impact of physician knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs. J. Vasc. Surg. 42:726-733, 2005.
13. Cardenas, GA; Deitcher, SR: Risk of anaphylaxis after reexposure to intravenous lepirudin in patients with current or past heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Mayo Clin. Proc. 80:491-3, 2005.
14. Chong, BH; Gallus, AS; Cade, JF; et al.: Prospective randomized open-label comparison of danaparoid with dextran 70 in the treatment of heparin-induced thrombocytopaenia with thrombosis: a clinical outcome study. Thromb. Haemost. 86:1170-1175, 2001.
15. Chong, BH; Ismail, F; Cade, J; et al.: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: studies with a new low molecular weight heparinoid, Org 10172. Blood. May 1;73(6):1592-6, 1989.
16. Cines, DB; Rauova, L; Arepally, G; et al.: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: an autoimmune disorder regulated through dynamic autoantigen assembly/disassembly. J. Clin. Apher. 22:31-6, 2007.
17. Colwell, CW Jr.; Spiro, TE; Trowbridge, AA; et al.: Use of enoxaparin, a low-molecular-weight heparin, and unfractionated heparin for the prevention of deep venous thrombosis after elective hip replacement. A clinical trial comparing efficacy and safety. Enoxaparin Clinical Trial Group. J Bone Joint Surg. Am. 76:3-14, 1994.
18. Davoren, A; Aster, RH: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. Am. J Hematol. 81:36-44, 2006.
19. Dahl, OE; Caprini, JA; Colwell CW, Jr.; et al.: Fatal vascular outcomes following major orthopedic surgery. Thromb. Haemost. 93(5):860-6, 2005.
20. Deitcher, SR; Carman, TL: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: natural history, diagnosis, and management. Vasc Med. 6:113-119, 2001.
21. Denys, B; Stove, V; Phillippe, J; Devreese, K: A clinical-laboratory approach contributing to a rapid and reliable diagnosis of heparin induced thrombocytopenia. Thromb Res. DOI:10.1016/j.thrombres. 2008.04.020. In press, June 2008.
22. Fabris, F; Luzzatto, G; Soini, B; et al.: Risk factors for thrombosis in patients with immune mediated heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. J Intern. Med. 252:149-154, 2002.
23. Fabris, F; Luzzatto, G; Stefani, PM; et al.: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Haematologica. 85:72-81, 2000.
24. Freedman, KB; Brookenthal, KR; Fitzgerald RH, Jr.; Williams, S; Lonner, JH: A meta-analysis of thromboembolic prophylaxis following elective total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg. 82-A(7):929-38, 2000.
25. Friedman, RJ; Gallus, AS; Cushner, FD; Fitzgerald, G; Anderson, FA; Jr.: Physician compliance with guidelines for deep-vein thrombosis prevention in total hip and knee arthroplasty. Current medical research and opinion. 24:87-97, 2008.
26. Warkentin, TE; Greinacher, A; Koster, A; Lincoff, AM: Treatment and prevention of heparin induced thrombocytopenia: American College of Chest Physicians evidence based clinical practice guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 133(6 Suppl):340-380, 2008.
27. Geerts, WH; Pineo, GF; Heit, JA; et al.: Prevention of venous thromboembolism: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 126:338S-400S, 2004.
28. Girolami, B; Prandoni, P; Stefani, PM; et al.: The incidence of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in hospitalized medical patients treated with subcutaneous unfractionated heparin: a prospective cohort study. Blood. 101:2955-9, 2003.
29. Greinacher, A; Amiral, J; Dummel, V; et al.: Laboratory diagnosis of heparin-associated thrombocytopenia and comparison of platelet aggregation test, heparin-induced platelet activation test, and platelet factor 4/heparin enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Transfusion. 34(5):381-5, 1994.
30. Greinacher, A; Eichler, P; Lietz, T; Warkentin, TE: Replacement of unfractionated heparin by low-molecular-weight heparin for postorthopedic surgery antithrombotic prophylaxis lowers the overall risk of symptomatic thrombosis because of a lower frequency of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood. 106:2921-2, 2005.
31. Greinacher, A; Eichler, P; Lubenow, N; Kwasny, H; Luz, M: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia with thromboembolic complications: meta-analysis of 2 prospective trials to assess the value of parenteral treatment with lepirudin and its therapeutic aPTT range. Blood. 96(3):846-51, 2000.
32. Greinacher, A; Farner, B; Kroll, H; et al.: Clinical features of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia including risk factors for thrombosis. A retrospective analysis of 408 patients. Thromb Haemost. 94:132-135, 2005.
33. Greinacher, A; Janssens, U; Berg, G; et al.: Lepirudin (recombinant hirudin) for parenteral anticoagulation in patients with heparininduced thrombocytopenia. Heparin-Associated Thrombocytopenia Study (HAT) investigators. Circulation. 100:587-593, 1999.
34. Greinacher, A; Volpel, H; Janssens, U; et al.: Recombinant hirudin (lepirudin) provides safe and effective anticoagulation in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: a prospective study. Circulation. 99:73-80, 1999.
35. Greinacher, A; Warkentin, TE: Recognition, treatment, and prevention of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: review and update. Thromb Res. 118(2):165-76, 2006.
36. Gruel, Y; Pouplard, C; Nguyen, P; et al.: Biological and clinical features of low-molecular-weight heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Br. J Haematol. 121(5):786-92, 2003.
37. Hanslow, SS; Grujic, L; Slater, HK; Chen, D: Thromboembolic disease after foot and ankle surgery. Foot Ankle Int. 27:693-695, 2006.
38. Harenberg, J; Huhle, G; Giese, C; et al.: Determination of serotonin release from platelets by enzyme immunoassay in the diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Br. J Haematol. 109:182-6, 2000.
39. Hirsh, J; Heddle, N; Kelton, JG: Treatment of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: a critical review. Arch. Intern Med. 164(4):361-9, 2004.
40. Hirsh, J; Raschke, R: Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 126:188S-203S, 2004.
41. Hirsh, J;Warkentin, TE; Shaughnessy, SG; et al.: Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, dosing, monitoring, efficacy, and safety. Chest. 119:64S-94S, 2001.
42. Hong, AP; Cook, DJ; Sigouin, CS; Warkentin, TE: Central venous catheters and upper-extremity deep-vein thrombosis complicating immune heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood. 101(8):3049-51, 2003.
43. Kejariwal, D: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: a complication of thromboprophylaxis. J Bone Joint Surg. Br. 88:392-393, 2006.
44. Kelton, JG: The pathophysiology of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: biological basis for treatment. Chest. 127:9S-20S, 2005.
45. Kiser, TH; Fish, DN: Evaluation of bivalirudin treatment for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in critically ill patients with hepatic and/or renal dysfunction. Pharmacotherapy. 26(4):452-60, 2006.
46. Kodityal, S; Nguyen, PH; Kodityal, A: Argatroban for suspected heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: contemporary experience at a large teaching hospital. J Intensive Care Med. 21:86, 2006.
47. Lacey, JV; Penner, JA: Management of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in the adult. Semin Thromb Hemost. 3:160-74, 1977.
48. Lam, F; Hussain, S; Li, P: Limb loss following the use of heparin. A lesson to be remembered. J Bone Joint Surg. Br. 84:588-589, 2002.
49. LaMonte, MP; Brown, PM; Hursting, MJ: Stroke in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and the effect of argatroban therapy. Crit. Care Med. 2004; 32:976-80, 2004.
50. Lapidus, LJ; Rosfors, S; Ponzer, S; et al.: Prolonged thromboprophylaxis with dalteparin after surgical treatment of achilles tendon rupture: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Orthop. Trauma. 21:52-57, 2007.
51. Laster, JL; Nichols, WK; Silver, D: Thrombocytopenia associated with heparin-coated catheters in patients with heparin-associated antiplatelet antibodies. Arch Intern. Med. 149:2285-2287, 1989.
52. Laster, J; Silver, D: Heparin-coated catheters and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. J Vasc. Surg. 7:667, 1988.
53. Levine, RL; McCollum, D; Hursting, MJ: How frequently is venous thromboembolism in heparin-treated patients associated with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia? Chest. 130(3):681-7, 2006.
54. Lewis, BE; Wallis, DE; Berkowitz, SD; et al.: Argatroban antico-agulant therapy in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Circulation. 103:1838-1843, 2001.
55. Lewis, BE; Wallis, DE; Leya, F; Hursting, MJ; Kelton JG: Argatroban-915 Investigators. Effects of argatroban therapy, demographic variables, and platelet count on thrombotic risks in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Chest. 129:1407-56, 2006.
56. Lewis, BE; Wallis, DE; Leya, F; Hursting, MJ; Kelton, JG: Argatroban anticoagulation in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Arch Intern. Med. 163:1849-1856, 2003.
57. Lilikakis, AK; Papapolychroniou, T; Macheras, G; Michelinakis, E: Thrombocytopenia and intra-cerebral complications associated with low-molecular-weight heparin treatment in patients undergoing total hip replacement. A report of two cases. J Bone Joint Surg. Am. 88:634-638, 2006.
58. Lindhoff-Last, E; Wenning, B; Stein, M; et al.: Risk factors and long-term follow-up of patients with the immune type of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Clin. Appl. Thromb Hemost. 8:347-352, 2002.
59. Lo, GK; Juhl, D;Warkentin, TE; et al.: Evaluation of pretest clinical score (4 T's) for the diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in two clinical settings. J Thromb Haemost. 4:759-765, 2006.
60. Lubenow, N; Eichler, P; Lietz, T; Farner, B; Greinacher, A: Lepirudin for prophylaxis of thrombosis in patients with acute isolated heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: an analysis of 3 prospective studies. Blood. 104:3072-3077, 2004.
61. Lubenow, N; Eichler, P; Lietz, T; Greinacher, A: Lepirudin in patients with heparin induced thrombocytopenia - results of the third prospective study (HAT-3) and a combined analysis of HAT-1, HAT-2, and HAT-3. J. Thromb Haemost. 3:2428-2436, 2005.
62. Lubenow, N; Kempf, R; Eichner, A; et al.: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: temporal pattern of thrombocytopenia in relation to initial use or reexposure to heparin. Chest. 122:37-42, 2002.
63. Magnani, HN: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT): an overview of 230 patients treated with orgaran (Org 10172). Thromb Haemost. 70(4):554-61, 1993.
64. Magnani, HN; Gallus, A: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). A report of 1,478 clinical outcomes of patients treated with danaparoid (Orgaran) from 1982 to mid-2004. Thromb Haemost. 95:967-981, 2006.
65. Mandt, PR; Robinson, CA; Sarnoff, RB; Colwell, CW Jr: Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia with venous thrombosis. A case report. J Bone Joint Surg. Am. 67:1123-1124, 1985.
66. Markovich, GD; Russell, JM; Gagne, P: Antibody-induced arterial thromboembolism resulting in amputation after total knee arthroplasty. J. Arthroplasty. 12:350-352, 1997.
67. Martel, N; Lee, J; Wells, PS: Risk for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia with unfractionated and low-molecular-weight heparin thromboprophylaxis: a meta-analysis. Blood. 106:2710-2715, 2005.
68. Menajovsky, LB: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: clinical manifestations and management strategies. Am J Med. 118Suppl 8A:21S-30S, 2005.
69. Micheli, LJ: Thromboembolic complications of cast immobilization for injuries of the lower extremities. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 191-195, 1975.
70. Mizel, MS; Temple, HT; Michelson, JD; et al.: Thromboembolism after foot and ankle surgery. A multicenter study. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 180-185, 1998.
71. Moore, JR; Weiland, AJ: Heparin-induced thromboembolism: a case report. J. Hand Surg. [Am]. 4:382-385, 1979.
72. Muslimani, AA; Ricaurte, B; Daw, HA: Immune heparin-induced thrombocytopenia resulting from preceding exposure to heparin catheter flushes. Am J Hematol. 82:652-5, 2007.
73. Napolitano, LM; Warkentin, TE; Almahameed, A; Nasraway, SA: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in the critical care setting: diagnosis and management. Crit. Care Med. 34:2898-2911, 2006.
74. Newman, PM; Chong, BH: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: New evidence for the dynamic binding of purified anti-PF4-heparin antibodies to platelets and the resultant platelet activation. Blood. 96:182-7, 2000.
75. Papadopoulos, S; Flynn, JD; Lewis, DA: Fondaparinux as a treatment option for heparin induced thrombocytopenia. Pharmacotherapy. 27:921-926, 2007.
76. Patel, VP; Bong, M; DiCesare, PE: Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia and Thrombosis. Am J Orthopedics 36(5):255-260, 2007.
77. Patterson, BM; Marchand, R; Ranawat, C: Complications of heparin therapy after total joint arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg. Am. 71:1130-1134, 1989.
78. Pitto, RP; Hamer, H; Heiss-Dunlop, W; Kuehle, J: Mechanical prophylaxis of deep-vein thrombosis after total hip replacement a randomised clinical trial. J Bone Joint Surg. Br. 86:639-642, 2004.
79. Planès, A; Samama, MM; Lensing, AW; et al.: Prevention of deep vein thrombosis after hip replacement - comparison between two low-molecular heparins, tinzaparin and enoxaparin. Thromb Haemost. 81:22-5, 1999.
80. Pötzsch, B; Klövekorn, WP; Madlener, K: Use of heparin during cardiopulmonary bypass in patients with a history of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. N Engl J. Med. 17343(7):515, 2000.
81. Pouplard, C; Amiral, J; Borg, JY; et al.: Decision analysis for use of platelet aggregation test, carbon 14-serotonin release assay, and heparin-platelet factor 4 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Clin Pathol. 111(5):700-6, 1999.
82. Pouplard, C; Iochmann, S; Renard, B; et al.: Induction of monocyte tissue factor expression by antibodies to heparin-platelet factor 4 complexes developed in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood. 97:3300-2, 2001.
83. Pouplard, C; Gueret, P; Fourassier, M; Ternisien, C; Regina, S; Gruel, Y: Prospective evaluation of the '4Ts' scope and particle gel immunoassay specific to heparin/PF4 for the diagnosis of heparin induced thrombocytopenia. J Thrmob. Haemost. 5(7):1373-9, 2007.
84. Rauova, L; Zhai, L; Kowalska, MA; et al.: Role of platelet surface PF4 antigenic complexes in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia pathogenesis: diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Blood. 107:2346-53, 2006.
85. Rice, L; Attisha, WK; Drexler, A; Francis, JL: Delayed-onset heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Ann. Intern. Med. 136:210-215, 2002.
86. Schiff, RL; Kahn, SR; Shrier, I; et al.: Identifying orthopedic patients at high risk for venous thromboembolism despite thromboprophylaxis. Chest. 128:3364-3371, 2005.
87. Schenk, S; El-Banayosy, A; Morshuis, M; et al.: IgG classification of anti-PF4/heparin antibodies to identify patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia during mechanical circulatory support. J Thromb. Haemost. 5:235-41, 2007.
88. Selleng, K; Warkentin, TE; Greinacher, A: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in intensive care patients. Crit. Care Med. 35(4):1165-76, 2007.
89. Smythe, MA; Warkentin, TE; Stephens, JL; Zakalik, D; Mattson, JC: Venous limb gangrene during overlapping therapy with warfarin and a direct thrombin inhibitor for immune heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Hematol. 71:50-52, 2002.
90. Smythe, MA; Koerber, JM; Mattson, JC: The incidence of recognized heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in a large, tertiary care teaching hospital. Chest. 131:1644-9, 2007.
91. Solis, G; Saxby, T: Incidence of DVT following surgery of the foot and ankle. Foot Ankle Int. 23:411-414, 2002.
92. Stanton, PE Jr.; Evans, JR; Lefemine, AA; et al.: White clot syndrome. South Med. J. 81(5):616-20, 1988.
93. Stribling, WK; Slaughter, TF; Houle, TT; Sane, DC: Beyond the platelet count: heparin antibodies as independent risk predictors. Am Heart J. 153(6):900-6, 2007.
94. Suvarna, S; Espinasse, B; Qi, R; et al.: Determinants of PF4/heparin immunogenicity. Blood. 110:4253-60, 2007.
95. Tardy, B; Lecompte, T; Boelhen, F; et al.: Predictive factors for thrombosis and major bleeding in an observational study in 181 patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia treated with lepirudin. Blood. 108:1492-96, 2006.
96. Taylor, LM; Smith, KM: The paradox of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: future anticoagulation. Orthopedics. 28:651-654, 2005.
97. Taylor, LM; Smith, KM: The paradox of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: the initial management. Orthopedics. 28:559-562, 2005.
98. Verma, AK; Levine, M; Shalansky, SJ; Carter, CJ; Kelton, JG: Frequency of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in critical care patients. Pharmacotherapy. 23:745-53, 2003.
99. Wallis, DE; Workman, DL; Lewis, BE; et al.: Failure of early heparin cessation as treatment for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Am J. Med. 106:629-35, 1999.
100. Wang, F; Wera, G; Knoblich, GO; Chou, LB: Pulmonary embolism following operative treatment of ankle fractures: a report of three cases and review of the literature. Foot Ankle Int. 23:406-410, 2002.
101. Warkentin, TE: Clinical presentation of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Semin Hematol. 35:9-25, 1998.
102. Warkentin, TE: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: a ten-year retrospective. Annu Rev. Med. 50:129-147, 1999.
103. Warkentin, TE: Platelet count monitoring and laboratory testing for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Arch. Pathol Lab. Med. 126:1415-1423, 2002.
104. Warkentin, TE: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: pathogenesis and management. Br. J. Haematol. 121:535-555, 2003.
105. Warkentin, TE: Think of HIT. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 408-414, 2006.
106. Warkentin, TE; Cook, RJ; Marder, VJ; et al.: Anti-platelet factor 4/heparin antibodies in orthopedic surgery patients receiving antithrombotic prophylaxis with fondaparinux or enoxaparin. Blood. 106:3791-3796, 2005.
107. Warkentin, TE; Eikelboom, JW: Who Is (still) getting HIT? Chest. 131:1620-2, 2007.
108. Warkentin, TE; Elavathil, LJ; Hayward, CP; et al.: The pathogenesis of venous limb gangrene associated with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Ann. Intern. Med. 127:804-812, 1997.
109. Warkentin, TE; Greinacher, A: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: recognition, treatment, and prevention: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 126:311S-337S, 2004.
110. Warkentin, TE; Hirte, HW; Anderson, DR; et al.: Transient global amnesia associated with acute heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Med. 97:489-91, 1994.
111. Warkentin, TE; Kelton, JG: A 14-year study of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Med. 101:502-507, 1996.
112. Warkentin, TE; Kelton, JG: Delayed-onset heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. Ann Intern. Med. 135:502-506, 2001.
113. Warkentin, TE; Kelton, JG: Temporal aspects of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med. 344:1286-1292, 2001.
114. Warkentin, TE; Levine, MN; Hirsh, J; et al.: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients treated with low-molecular-weight heparin or unfractionated heparin. N Engl J Med. 332:1330-1335, 1995.
115. Warkentin, TE; Maurer, BT; Aster, RH: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia associated with fondaparinux. N Engl J Med. 356:2653-2655; discussion 2653-2655, 2007.
116. Warkentin, TE; Roberts, RS; Hirsh, J; Kelton, JG: An improved definition of immune heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in postoperative orthopedic patients. Arch Intern. Med. 163:2518-2524, 2003.
117. Warkentin, TE; Sheppard, JA; Horsewood, P; et al.: Impact of the patient population on the risk for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood. 96:1703-1708, 2000.
118. Warkentin, TE; Sheppard, JA; Sigouin, CS; et al.: Gender imbalance and risk factor interactions in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood. 108:2937-41, 2006.
119. Warkentin, TE; Sikov, WM; Lillicrap, DP: Multicentric warfarin-induced skin necrosis complicating heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Hematol. 62:44-48, 1999.
120. Watson, HG; Keeling DM: BCSH Taskforce in Haemostasis and Thrombosis. The management of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Br J Haematol. 135(2):269, 2006.
121. White, PW; Sadd, JR; Nensel, RE: Thrombotic complications of heparin therapy: including six cases of heparin-induced skin necrosis. Ann Surg. 190(5):595-608, 1979.
122. Wolf, JM; DiGiovanni, CW: A survey of 702 orthopedic surgeons regarding DVT prophylaxis in foot and ankle trauma surgery. Orthopedics. 27:504-508, 2004.