Investigating consciousness-raising tasks: Pedagogically targeted and non-targeted learning gains

International Journal of Applied Linguistics

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 119-145

  Eckerth, Johannes ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Consciousness raising tasks; Learning gains; Learning opportunities; Tailor made tests; Task based language learning and teaching

Indexed keywords

EID: 47749126546     PISSN: 08026106     EISSN: 14734192     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1473-4192.2008.00188.x     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. Adams, R. (2007) Do second language learners benefit from interacting with each other In A. Mackey (ed.), Conversational interaction in second language acquisition. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 29 51.
2. Benson, P. (2001) Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning. New York : Longman.
3. Benson, P. D. Nunan (eds.) (2005) Learners' Stories: Difference and Diversity in Language Learning. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
4. Bialystok, E. (1983) Inferencing: testing the 'hypothesis-testing' hypothesis. In H. Seliger M. Long (eds.), Classroom Oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA : Newbury House. 104 23.
5. Bruton, A. (2002) From tasking purposes to purposing tasks. ELT Journal 56 : 280 88.
6. Bygate, M., P. Skehan M. Swain (eds.) (2001) Researching Pedagogic Tasks : Second Language Learning, Teaching and Testing. London : Longman.
7. Candlin, C. (2001) Afterthought: taking the curriculum to task. In Bygate et al 2001 : 229 43).
8. Carless, D. (2003) Factors in the implementation of task-based teaching in primary schools. System 31 : 485 500.
9. Carless, D. (2004) Issues in teachers' reinterpretation of a task-based innovation in primary schools. TESOL Quarterly 38 : 639 62.
10. Carless, D. A. Gordon (1997) Hong Kong primary teachers' perceptions of the difficulties in implementing task-based language teaching. Journal of Basic Education 7 : 139 59.
11. Chen, R. B. Hird (2006) Group work in the EFL classroom in China: a closer look. RELC Journal 37 : 91 103.
12. DeKeyser, R. (2003) Implicit and explicit learning. In C. Doughty M. Long (eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford : Blackwell. 313 48.
13. Donato, R. (1994) Collective scaffolding in second language learning. In J. Lantolf G. Appel (eds.), Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research. Norwood, NJ : Ablex. 33 56.
14. Donato, R. (2004) Aspects of collaboration in pedagogical discourse. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24 : 284 302.
15. Doughty, C. (2003) Instructed SLA: constraints, compensation, and enhancement. In C. Doughty M. Long (eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford : Blackwell. 256 310.
16. Eckerth, J. (1999) Negotiation of target language discourse in foreign language learning: focus on form and meaning. Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen 61 : 75 83.
17. Eckerth, J. (2003) Fremdsprachenerwerb in aufgabenbasierten Interaktionen [Second language acquisition through task-based interaction]. Tübingen : Narr.
18. Eckerth, J. (2008) Task-based learner-learner interaction: investigating learning opportunities, learning processes, and learning outcomes. In J. Eckerth S. Siekmann (eds.), Research on Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching: Theoretical, Methodological and Pedagogical Perspectives. New York : Lang. 89 118.
19. Eckerth, J. (forthcoming) Negotiated interaction in the L2 classroom: a replication study. Language Teaching.
20. Edwards, C. J. Willis (eds.) (2005) Teachers Exploring Tasks in English Language Teaching. Basingstoke, UK : Palgrave Macmillan.
21. Ellis, N. (2002) Frequency effects in language processing: a review with implications for theories of implicit and explicit language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24 : 143 88.
22. Ellis, N. (2005) At the interface: dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27 : 305 52.
23. Ellis, R. (1991) Second Language Acquisition and Language Pedagogy. Clevedon, UK : Multilingual Matters.
24. Ellis, R. (1994) A theory of instructed second language acquisition. In N. Ellis (ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London : Academic Press. 79 114.
25. Ellis, R. (1995) Interpretation tasks for grammar teaching. TESOL Quarterly 29 : 87 105.
26. Ellis, R. (1997) SLA Research and Language Teaching. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
27. Ellis, R. (2002) Does form-focussed instruction affect the acquisition of implicit knowledge? Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24 : 223 36.
28. Ellis, R. (2003) Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
29. Ellis, R. (2004) The definition and measurement of L2 explicit knowledge. Language Learning 54 : 227 75.
30. Ellis, R. (2005) Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: a psychometric study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27 : 141 72.
31. Ellis, R. (2006) Modelling learning difficulty and second language proficiency: the differential contributions of implicit and explicit knowledge. Applied Linguistics 27 : 431 63.
32. Foster, P. (1998) A classroom perspective on the negotiation of meaning. Applied Linguistics 19 : 1 23.
33. Fotos, S. (1993) Consciousness raising and noticing through focus on form: grammar task performance versus formal instruction. Applied Linguistics 14 : 385 407.
34. Fotos, S. (1994) Integrating grammar instruction and communicative language use through grammar consciousness-raising tasks. TESOL Quarterly 28 : 323 52.
35. Fotos, S. R. Ellis (1991) Communication about grammar: a task-based approach. TESOL Quarterly 25 : 605 28.
36. García Mayo, M. (ed.) (2007) Investigating Tasks in Formal Language Learning. Clevedon, UK : Multilingual Matters.
37. Gatbonton, E. G. Gu (1994) Preparing and implementing a task-based ESL curriculum in an EFL setting: implications for theory and practice. TESL Canada Journal 11 : 9 29.
38. Grotjahn, R. (ed.) (2006) The C-Test. New York : Lang.
39. Hampshire, S. M. Anoro (2004) The siren call of the task. ELT Journal 58 : 71 4.
40. Hulstijn, J. (2002) Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledge. Second Language Research 18 : 193 223.
41. Klapper, J. (2003) Taking communication to task? A critical review of recent trends in language teaching. Language Learning Journal 27 : 33 42.
42. Klein-Braley, C. (1997) C-tests in the context of reduced redundancy testing: an appraisal. Language Testing 14 : 47 84.
43. Krashen, S. (1981) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford : Pergamon.
44. Krashen, S. (1994) The input hypothesis and its rivals. In N. Ellis (ed.), Implicit and Explicit Language Learning. San Diego, CA : Academic Press. 45 78.
45. Lantolf, J. S. Thorne (2006) Sociocultural Theory and the Genesis of Second Language Development. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
46. Leaver, B. J. Willis (eds.) (2004) Task-Based Instruction in Foreign Language Education. Washington, DC : Georgetown University Press.
47. Lee, J. (2000) Tasks and Communication in Language Classrooms. Columbus, OH : McGraw-Hill.
48. Leow, R. (1997) Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning 47 : 467 505.
49. Littlewood, W. (2004) The task-based approach: some questions and some answers. ELT Journal 58 : 319 26.
50. Loewen, S. (2002) The occurrence and effectiveness of incidental focus on form in meaning-focussed ESL lessons. Doctoral dissertation, University of Auckland.
51. Loewen, S. (2005) Incidental focus on form and second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27 : 361 86.
52. Loewen, S. J. Philip (2006) Recasts in the adult English L2 classroom: characteristics, explicitness, and effectiveness. Modern Language Journal 90 : 536 56.
53. Long, M. (1983) Does second language instruction make a difference? A review of research. TESOL Quarterly 17 : 359 82.
54. Long, M. (1991) Focus on form: a design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. de Bot, R.B. Ginsberg C. Kramsch (eds.), Foreign Language Research in Cross-Cultural Perspective. Amsterdam : Benjamins. 39 51.
55. Long, M. (1996) The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. Ritchie T. Bhatia (eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. San Diego, CA : Academic Press. 413 68.
56. Long, M. (2000) Focus on form in task-based language teaching. In R. Lambert E. Shohamy (eds.), Language Policy and Pedagogy. Amsterdam : Benjamins. 179 92.
57. Long, M. (forthcoming) Task-Based Language Teaching. Oxford : Blackwell.
58. Long, M. Norris, J. (2000) Task-based teaching and assessment. In M. Byran (ed.), Encyclopedia of Language Teaching. London : Routledge. 597 602.
59. Loschky, L. R. Bley-Vroman (1993) Grammar and task-based methodology. In G. Crookes S. Gass (eds.), Tasks and Language Learning: Integrating Theory and Practice. Clevedon, UK : Multilingual Matters. 123 67.
60. MacWhinney, B. (1997) Implicit and explicit processes. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19 : 277 81.
61. Markee, N. (1997) Second language acquisition research: a resource for changing teachers' professional cultures? Modern Language Journal 81 : 80 93.
62. McDonough, K. W. Chaikitmongkol (2007) Teachers' and learners' reactions to a task-based EFL course in Thailand. TESOL Quarterly 41 : 107 32.
63. Mohamed, N. (2004) Consciousness-raising tasks: a learner perspective. ELT Journal 58 : 228 37.
64. Mok-Cheung, A. (2001) The missing element of rational pedagogical reform: a critical analysis of the task-based learning English syllabus. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education and Development 4 : 189 211.
65. Nabei, T. M. Swain (2002) Learner awareness of recasts in classroom interaction: a case study of an adult EFL student's second language learning. Language Awareness 11 : 43 63.
66. Nitta, R. S. Gardner (2005) Consciousness-raising and practice in ELT coursebooks. ELT Journal 59 : 3 13.
67. Nobuyoshi J. R. Ellis (1993) Focussed communication tasks and SLA. ELT Journal 47 : 203 10.
68. Norris, J. L. Ortega (2000) Effectiveness of L2 instruction: a research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning 50 : 417 528.
69. Nunan, D. (2004) Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
70. Robinson, P. (2001) Task complexity, cognitive resources, and syllabus design: a triadic framework for examining task influences on SLA. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 287 318.
71. Robinson, P. (2007) Criteria for classifying and sequencing pedagogic tasks. In García Mayo (2007 : 7 26).
72. Samuda, V. M. Bygate (2008) Tasks in second language learning. Houndsmill : Macmillan.
73. Schmidt, R. (1994) Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. In J. Hulstijn R. Schmidt (eds.), Consciousness in Second Language Learning. AILA-Review 11 : 11 26.
74. Schmidt, R. (1995) Consciousness and foreign language learning: a tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. In R. Schmidt (ed.), Attention and Awareness in Foreign Language Learning. Honolulu : University of Hawai'i. 1 63.
75. Schmidt, R. (2001) Attention. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 3 32.
76. Seedhouse, P. (2005) 'Task' as a research construct. Language Learning 55 : 533 70.
77. Sharwood Smith, M. (1981) Consciousness-raising and the second language learner. Applied Linguistics 2 : 159 69.
78. Sheen, R. (1992) Problem solving brought to task. RELC Journal 23 : 44 59.
79. Sheen, R. (1994) A critical analysis of the advocacy of the task-based syllabus. TESOL Quarterly 28 : 127 51.
80. Skehan, P. (1996) A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics 17 : 38 62.
81. Skehan, P. (1998) A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
82. Skehan, P. (2002) A non-marginal role for tasks. ELT Journal 56 : 289 95.
83. Skehan, P. (2003) Task-based instruction. Language Teaching 36 : 1 14.
84. Sorace, A. (1985) Metalinguistic knowledge and language use in acquisition-poor environments. Applied Linguistics 6 : 239 54.
85. Spada, N. (1997) Form-focussed instruction and second language acquisition: a review of classroom and laboratory research. Language Teaching 30 : 73 87.
86. Storch, N. (2001) How collaborative is pair work? ESL tertiary students composing in pairs. Language Teaching Research 5 : 29 53.
87. Storch, N. (2002) Patterns of interaction in ESL pair work. Language Learning 52 : 119 58.
88. Swain, M. (1995) Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook B. Seidlhofer (eds.), Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics. Oxford : Oxford University Press. 125 44.
89. Swain, M. (2000) The output hypothesis and beyond: mediating acquisition through collaborative dialogue. In J. Lantolf (ed.), Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning. Oxford : Oxford University Press. 97 114.
90. Swain, M. (2001) Examining dialogue: another approach to content specification and to validating inferences drawn from test scores. Language Testing 18 : 275 302.
91. Swain, M. (2005) The output hypothesis: theory and research. In E. Hinkel (ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum. 471 83.
92. Swain, M. S. Lapkin (1998) Interaction and second language learning: two adolescent French immersion students working together. Modern Language Journal 82 : 320 37.
93. Swain, M. S. Lapkin (2001) Focus on form through collaborative dialogue: exploring task effects. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan M. Swain (eds.), Researching Pedagogic Tasks : Second Language Learning, Teaching and Testing. Harlow, UK : Longman. 99 118.
94. Swain, M. S. Lapkin (2002) Talking it through: two French immersion learners' responses to reformulation. International Journal of Educational Research 37 : 285 304.
95. Swain, M. S. Lapkin (forthcoming) 'Oh, I get it now!' From production to comprehension in second language learning. In D.M. Brinton O. Kagan (eds.), Heritage Language Acquisition: A New Field Emerging. Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
96. Swan, M. (2005) Legislation by hypothesis: the case of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics 26 : 376 401.
97. Van den Branden, K. (2006) Training teachers: task-based as well? In K. Van den Branden (ed.), Task-Based Language Education: From Theory to Practice. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 217 48.
98. Van den Branden, K., K. Van Gorp M. Verhelst (eds. 2007) Tasks in action: task-based language education from a classroom-based perspective. Newcastle : Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
99. Van Patten, B. (1996) Input Processing and Grammar Instruction in Second Language Acquisition. Norwood, NJ : Ablex.
100. Watanabe, Y. M. Swain (2007) Effects of proficiency differences and patterns of pair interaction on second language learning: collaborative dialogue between adult ESL learners. Language Teaching Research 11 : 121 42.
101. Watson Todd, R. (2001) Designing a task-based curriculum. In R. Watson Todd (ed.), Task-Based Learning and Curriculum Innovation. Bangkok : King Monghut's University of Technology. 3 9.
102. Watson Todd, R. (2006) Continuing change after the innovation. System 34 : 11 14.
103. Wertsch, J. (1979) From social interaction to higher psychological processes: a clarification and application of Vygotsky's theory. Human Development 22 : 1 22.
104. Williams, J. (2001a) Learner-generated attention to form. Language Learning 51 : 303 46.
105. Williams, J. (2001b) The effectiveness of spontaneous attention to form. System 29 : 325 40.
106. Williams, J. (2005) Form-focussed instruction. In E. Hinkel (ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum. 671 91.
107. Willis, J. (1996) A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Harlow, UK : Longman.
108. Willis, J. (2004) Perspectives on task-based instruction: understanding our practices, acknowledging different practitioners. In Leaver and Willis (2004 : 3 44).