Treatment of childhood arterial ischemic stroke

Annals of Neurology

Volumn 63, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 679-696

  Bernard, Timothy J ^a,e   Goldenberg, Neil A ^a,b   Armstrong Wells, Jennifer ^c   Amlie Lefond, Catherine ^d   Fullerton, Heather J ^c  

^a Children's Hospital Colorado   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^d MEDICAL COLLEGE OF WISCONSIN   (United States)

^e CHILDREN S HOSPITAL COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; CLOPIDOGREL; CYCLOOXYGENASE 1; DALTEPARIN; DIPYRIDAMOLE; ENOXAPARIN; FIBRINOGEN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; GLUCOSE; HEPARIN; MEZLOCILLIN; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENT; NYX 059; OXYGEN; SULBACTAM; TICLOPIDINE; TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR; WARFARIN;

ANAPHYLAXIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLEEDING; BLOOD PRESSURE MONITORING; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; CHILD; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE; CONTROLLED STUDY; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; EPISTAXIS; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FEVER; GASTRITIS; HEPARIN INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; HUMAN TISSUE; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPOXIA; INFECTION; INJECTION SITE BLEEDING; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; LONG TERM CARE; LOW DRUG DOSE; MOYAMOYA DISEASE; OSTEOPOROSIS; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; REYE SYNDROME; RISK FACTOR; SICKLE CELL ANEMIA; SMOKING; STROKE; SUBDURAL HEMATOMA;

AGE FACTORS; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CEREBRAL ARTERIES; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; HUMANS; NEUROLOGY; PEDIATRICS; PHYSICAL THERAPY MODALITIES; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; STROKE; THROMBOLYTIC THERAPY;

EID: 46849104716     PISSN: 03645134     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ana.21406     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. Schoenberg BS, Mellinger JF, Schoenberg DG. Cerebrovascular disease in infants and children: a study of incidence, clinical features, and survival. Neurology 1978;28:763-768.
2. Fullerton HJ, Wu YW, Sidney S, et al. Risk of recurrent childhood arterial ischemic stroke in a population-based cohort: the importance of cerebrovascular imaging. Pediatrics 2007;119:495-501.
3. Ganesan V, Prengler M, Wade A, et al. Clinical and radiological recurrence after childhood arterial ischemic stroke. Circulation 2006;114:2170-2177.
4. Strater R, Becker S, von Eckardstein A, et al. Prospective assessment of risk factors for recurrent stroke during childhood: a 5-year follow-up study. Lancet 2002;360:1540-1545.
5. Chabrier S, Lasjaunias P, Husson B, et al. Ischaemic stroke from dissection of the craniocervical arteries in childhood: report of 12 patients. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2003;7:39-42.
6. Bernard TJ, Mull BR, Handler MH, et al. An 18-year-old man with fenestrated vertebral arteries, recurrent stroke and successful angiographic coiling. J Neurol Sci 2007;260:279-282.
7. Ganesan V, Prengler M, McShane MA, et al. Investigation of risk factors in children with arterial ischemic stroke. Ann Neurol 2003;53:167-173.
8. Haywood S, Liesner R, Pindora S, et al. Thrombophilia and first arterial ischaemic stroke: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child 2005;90:402-405.
9. Kenet G, Sadetzki S, Murad H, et al. Factor V Leiden and antiphospholipid antibodies are significant risk factors for ischemic stroke in children. Stroke 2000;31:1283-1288.
10. Kieslich M, Fiedler A, Heller C, et al. Minor head injury as cause and co-factor in the aetiology of stroke in childhood: a report of eight cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002;73:13-16.
11. Lanthier S, Carmant L, David M, et al. Stroke in children: the coexistence of multiple risk factors predicts poor outcome. Neurology 2000;54:371-378.
12. Sebire G, Fullerton H, Riou E, et al. Toward the definition of cerebral arteriopathies of childhood. Curr Opin Pediatr 2004;16:617-622.
13. Shaffer L, Rich PM, Pohl KR, et al. Can mild head injury cause ischaemic stroke? Arch Dis Child 2003;88:267-269.
14. Pavlakis SG, Kingsley PB, Bialer MG. Stroke in children: genetic and metabolic issues. J Child Neurol 2000;15:308-315.
15. Danchaivijitr N, Cox TC, Saunders DE, et al. Evolution of cerebral arteriopathies in childhood arterial ischemic stroke. Ann Neurol 2006;59:620-626.
16. Askalan R, Laughlin S, Mayank S, et al. Chickenpox and stroke in childhood: a study of frequency and causation. Stroke 2001;32:1257-1262.
17. Lanthier S, Lortie A, Michaud J, et al. Isolated angiitis of the CNS in children. Neurology 2001;56:837-842.
18. Chabrier S, Husson B, Lasjaunias P, et al. Stroke in childhood: outcome and recurrence risk by mechanism in 59 patients. J Child Neurol 2000;15:290-294.
19. Strater R, Kurnik K, Heller C, et al. Aspirin versus low-dose low-molecular-weight heparin: antithrombotic therapy in pediatric ischemic stroke patients: a prospective follow-up study. Stroke 2001;32:2554-2558.
20. Steinlin M, Pfister I, Pavlovic J, et al. The first three years of the Swiss Neuropaediatric Stroke Registry (SNPSR): a population-based study of incidence, symptoms and risk factors. Neuropediatrics 2005;36:90-97.
21. deVeber GA, MacGregor D, Curtis R, et al. Neurologic outcome in survivors of childhood arterial ischemic stroke and sinovenous thrombosis. J Child Neurol 2000;15:316-324.
22. Lo W, Zamel K, Ponnappa K, et al. The cost of pediatric stroke care and rehabilitation. Stroke 2008;39:161-165.
23. Monagle P, Chan A, Massicotte P, et al. Antithrombotic therapy in children: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126:645S-687S.
24. Royal College of Physicians, Pediatric Stroke Working Group. Stroke in childhood: clinical guidelines for diagnosis, management and rehabilitation, 2004. Available at: http://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/pubs/books/childstroke/. Accessed Apr. 9, 2008.
25. Adams HP Jr, del Zoppo G, Alberts MJ, et al. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups. The American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Circulation 2007;115:e478-e534.
26. Treib J, Grauer MT, Woessner R, et al. Treatment of stroke on an intensive stroke unit: a novel concept. Intensive Care Med 2000;26:1598-1611.
27. Singhal AB, Benner T, Roccatagliata L, et al. A pilot study of normobaric oxygen therapy in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 2005;36:797-802.
28. Singhal AB. A review of oxygen therapy in ischemic stroke. Neurol Res 2007;29:173-183.
29. Ronning OM, Guldvog B. Should stroke victims routinely receive supplemental oxygen? A quasi-randomized controlled trial. Stroke 1999;30:2033-2037.
30. Baird TA, Parsons MW, Phanh T, et al. Persistent poststroke hyperglycemia is independently associated with infarct expansion and worse clinical outcome. Stroke 2003;34:2208-2214.
31. Bruno A, Biller J, Adams HP Jr, et al. Acute blood glucose level and outcome from ischemic stroke. Trial of ORG 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment (TOAST) Investigators. Neurology 1999;52:280-284.
32. Capes SE, Hunt D, Malmberg K, et al. Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview. Stroke 2001;32:2426-2432.
33. Monagle P, Chan KC, DeVeber G, Malmberg K. Pediatric thromboembolism and stroke, 1st ed. Hamilton, ON, B.C. Decker, 2006.
34. Faustino EV, Apkon M. Persistent hyperglycemia in critically ill children. J Pediatr 2005;146:30-34.
35. Srinivasan V, Spinella PC, Drott HR, et al. Association of timing, duration, and intensity of hyperglycemia with intensive care unit mortality in critically ill children. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2004;5:329-336.
36. Hajat C, Hajat S, Sharma P. Effects of poststroke pyrexia on stroke outcome: a meta-analysis of studies in patients. Stroke 2000;31:410-414.
37. Reith J, Jorgensen HS, Pedersen PM, et al. Body temperature in acute stroke: relation to stroke severity, infarct size, mortality, and outcome. Lancet 1996;347:422-425.
38. Natale JE, Joseph JG, Helfaer MA, et al. Early hyperthermia after traumatic brain injury in children: risk factors, influence on length of stay, and effect on short-term neurologic status. Crit Care Med 2000;28:2608-2615.
39. Correia M, Silva M, Veloso M. Cooling therapy for acute stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;CD001247.
40. Gluckman PD, Wyatt JS, Azzopardi D, et al. Selective head cooling with mild systemic hypothermia after neonatal encephalopathy: multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 2005;365:663-670.
41. Thoresen M, Whitelaw A. Therapeutic hypothermia for hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy in the newborn infant. Curr Opin Neurol 2005;18:111-116.
42. Castillo J, Leira R, Garcia MM, et al. Blood pressure decrease during the acute phase of ischemic stroke is associated with brain injury and poor stroke outcome. Stroke 2004;35:520-526.
43. Oliveira-Filho J, Silva SC, Trabuco CC, et al. Detrimental effect of blood pressure reduction in the first 24 hours of acute stroke onset. Neurology 2003;61:1047-1051.
44. Fogelholm R, Erila T, Palomaki H, et al. Effect of nimodipine on final infarct volume after acute ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2000;10:189-193.
45. Fogelholm R, Palomaki H, Erila T, et al. Blood pressure, nimodipine, and outcome of ischemic stroke. Acta Neurol Scand 2004;109:200-204.
46. Kaste M, Fogelholm R, Erila T, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of nimodipine in acute ischemic hemispheric stroke. Stroke 1994;25:1348-1353.
47. Vahedi K, Hofmeijer J, Juettler E, et al. Early decompressive surgery in malignant infarction of the middle cerebral artery: a pooled analysis of three randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol 2007;6:215-222.
48. Puetz V, Campos CR, Eliasziw M, et al. Assessing the benefits of hemicraniectomy: what is a favourable outcome? Lancet Neurol 2007;6:580-581.
49. Lee MC, Frank JI, Kahana M, et al. Decompressive hemicraniectomy in a 6-year-old male after unilateral hemispheric stroke. Case report and review. Pediatr Neurosurg 2003;38:181-185.
50. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1581-1587.
51. The IMS Study Investigators. Combined intravenous and intra-arterial recanalization for acute ischemic stroke: the interventional management of stroke Study. Stroke 2004;35:904-911.
52. Gobin PY, Starkman S, Duckwiler GR, et al. A phase 1 study of mechanical embolus removal in cerebral ischemia. Stroke 2004;35:2848-2854.
53. del Zoppo GJ, Higashida RT, Furlan AJ, et al. PROACT: a phase II randomized trial of recombinant pro-urokinase by direct arterial delivery in acute middle cerebral artery stroke. PROACT Investigators. Prolyse in Acute Cerebral Thromboembolism. Stroke 1998;29:4-11.
54. Furlan A, Higashida R, Wechsler L, et al. Intra-arterial prourokinase for acute ischemic stroke. The PROACT II study: a randomized controlled trial. Prolyse in Acute Cerebral Thromboembolism. JAMA 1999;282:2003-2011.
55. Smith WS, Sung G, Saver J, et al. Mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke. Final results of the Multi MERCI trial. Stroke 2008;39:1205-1212.
56. Goldenberg NL, Hathaway WE, Jacobson L, et al. Influence of factor VIII on overall coagulability and fibrinolytic potential of haemophilic plasma as measured by global assay: monitoring in haemophilia A. Haemophilia 2006;12:605-614.
57. Siegbahn A, Ruusuvaara L. Age dependence of blood fibrinolytic components and the effects of low-dose oral contraceptives on coagulation and fibrinolyisis in teenagers. Thromb Haemost 1988;60:361-364.
58. Smith AA, Jacobson LJ, Miller BI, et al. A new euglobulin clot lysis assay for global fibrinolysis. Thromb Res 2003;112:329-337.
59. Amlie-Lefond C, Benedict SL, Benard T, et al. Thrombolysis in children with arterial ischemic stroke: initial results from the International Paediatric Stroke Study [abstract]. Stroke 2007;38:485.
60. Benedict SL, Ni OK, Schloesser P, et al. Intra-arterial thrombolysis in a 2-year-old with cardioembolic stroke. J Child Neurol 2007;22:225-227.
61. Cannon BC, Kertesz NJ, Friedman RA, et al. Use of tissue plasminogen activator in a stroke after radiofrequency ablation of a left-sided accessory pathway. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2001;12:723-725.
62. Carlson MD, Leber S, Deveikis J, et al. Successful use of rt-PA in pediatric stroke. Neurology 2001;57:157-158.
63. Golomb MR, Rafay M, Armstrong D, et al. Intra-arterial tissue plasminogen activator for thrombosis complicating cerebral angiography in a 17-year-old girl. J Child Neurol 2003;18:420-423.
64. Gruber A, Nasel C, Lang W, et al. Intra-arterial thrombolysis for the treatment of perioperative childhood cardioembolic stroke. Neurology 2000;54:1684-1686.
65. Kirton A, Wong JH, Mah J, et al. Successful endovascular therapy for acute basilar thrombosis in an adolescent. Pediatrics 2003;112:e248-e251.
66. Noser EA, Felberg RA, Alexandrov AV. Thrombolytic therapy in an adolescent ischemic stroke. J Child Neurol 2001;16:286-288.
67. Thirumalai SS, Shubin RA. Successful treatment for stroke in a child using recombinant tissue plasminogen activator. J Child Neurol 2000;15:558.
68. Janjua N, Nasar A, Lynch JK, et al. Thrombolysis for ischemic stroke in children: data from the nationwide inpatient sample. Stroke 2007;38:1850-1854.
69. Kuhle S, Mitchell L, Andrew M, et al. Urgent clinical challenges in children with ischemic stroke: analysis of 1065 patients from the 1-800-NOCLOTS pediatric stroke telephone consultation service. Stroke 2006;37:116-122.
70. Gurbel PA, Bliden KP, Dichiara J, et al. Evaluation of dose-related effects of aspirin on platelet function: results from the Aspirin-Induced Platelet Effect (ASPECT) study. Circulation 2007;115:3156-3164.
71. CAST (Chinese Acute Stroke Trial) Collaborative Group. CAST: randomized placebo-controlled trial of early aspirin use in 20,000 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet 1997;349:1641-1649.
72. International Stroke Trial Collaborative Group. The International Stroke Trial (IST): a randomised trial of aspirin, subcutaneous heparin, both, or neither among 19435 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet 1997;349:1569-1581.
73. Chen ZM, Sandercock P, Pan HC, et al. Indications for early aspirin use in acute ischemic stroke: a combined analysis of 40 000 randomized patients from the Chinese acute stroke trial and the international stroke trial. On behalf of the CAST and IST collaborative groups. Stroke 2000;31:1240-1249.
74. Mohr JP, Thompson JL, Lazar RM, et al. A comparison of warfarin and aspirin for the prevention of recurrent ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1444-1451.
75. Chen ZM, Sandercock P, Pan HC, et al. Indications for early aspirin use in acute ischemic stroke: a combined analysis of 40 000 randomized patients from the Chinese acute stroke trial and the international stroke trial. On behalf of the CAST and 1ST collaborative groups. Stroke 2000;31:1240-1249.
76. Schror K. Aspirin and Reye syndrome: a review of the evidence. Paediatr Drugs 2007;9:195-204.
77. Weiner DL. Pediatric, Reye syndrome. Emedicine. 2005. http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic399.htm. Accessed Apr. 9, 2008.
78. Bzduch V, Behulova D, Lehnert W, et al. Metabolic cause of Reye-like syndrome. Bratisl Lek Listy 2001;102:427-429.
79. Belay ED, Bresee JS, Holman RC, et al. Reye's syndrome in the United States from 1981 through 1997. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1377-1382.
80. Glasgow JF, Middleton B. Reye syndrome - insights on causation and prognosis. Arch Dis Child 2001;85:351-353.
81. Schror K. Aspirin and Reye syndrome: a review of the evidence. Paediatr Drugs 2007;9:195-204.
82. Strater R, Vielhaber H, Kassenbohmer R, et al. Genetic risk factors of thrombophilia in ischaemic childhood stroke of cardiac origin. A prospective ESPED survey. Eur J Pediatr 1999;158(suppl 3):S122-S125.
83. Andrew M, Marzinotto V, Massicotte P, et al. Heparin therapy in pediatric patients: a prospective cohort study. Pediatr Res 1994;35:78-83.
84. Manco-Johnson MJ. How I treat venous thrombosis in children. Blood 2006;107:21-29.
85. Schmugge M, Risch L, Huber AR, et al. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia-associated thrombosis in pediatric intensive care patients. Pediatrics 2002;109:E10.
86. Zimbelman J, Lefkowitz J, Schaeffer C, et al. Unusual complications of warfarin therapy: skin necrosis and priapism. J Pediatr 2000;137:266-268.
87. Massicotte P, Marzinotto V, Vegh P, et al. Home monitoring of warfarin therapy in children with a whole blood prothrombin time monitor. J Pediatr 1995;127:389-394.
88. Streif W, Andrew M, Marzinotto V, et al. Analysis of warfarin therapy in pediatric patients: a prospective cohort study of 319 patients. Blood 1999;94:3007-3014.
89. Barnes C, Newall F, Ignjatovic V, et al. Reduced bone density in children on long-term warfarin. Pediatr Res 2005;57:578-581.
90. Sacco RL, Adams R, Albers G, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke: co-sponsored by the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Circulation 2006;113:e409-e449.
91. Gubitz G, Sandercock P, Counsell C. Anticoagulants for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;3:CD000024.
92. Burak CR, Bowen MD, Barron TF. The use of enoxaparin in children with acute, nonhemorrhagic ischemic stroke. Pediatr Neurol 2003;29:295-298.
93. Ozgur BM, Aryan HE, Levy ML. Indirect revascularisation for paediatric moyamoya disease: the EAMS technique. J Clin Neurosci 2006;13:105-108.
94. Robertson RL, Burrows PE, Barnes PD, et al. Angiographic changes after pial synangiosis in childhood moyamoya disease. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1997;18:837-845.
95. Khan N, Schuknecht B, Boltshauser E, et al. Moyamoya disease and Moyamoya syndrome: experience in Europe; choice of revascularisation procedures. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2003;145:1061-1071.
96. Ishikawa T, Kamiyama H, Kuroda S, et al. Simultaneous superficial temporal artery to middle cerebral or anterior cerebral artery bypass with pan-synangiosis for Moyamoya disease covering both anterior and middle cerebral artery territories. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2006;46:462-468.
97. Adams RJ, McKie VC, Brambilla D, et al. Stroke prevention trial in sickle cell anemia. Control Clin Trials 1998;19:110-129.
98. Adams R, McKie V, Hsu L, et al. Prevention of a first stroke by transfusion in children with abnormal results of transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. N Engl J Med 1998;339:5-11.
99. Adams RJ, Brambilla D. Discontinuing prophylactic transfusions used to prevent stroke in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2769-2778.
100. Schiffmann R, Kopp JB, Austin HA, et al. Enzyme replacement therapy in Fabry disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001;285:2743-2749.
101. Sterr A, Elbert T, Berthold I, et al. Longer versus shorter daily constraint-induced movement therapy of chronic hemiparesis: an exploratory study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2002;83:1374-1377.
102. Mark VW, Taub E, Morris DM. Neuroplasticity and constraint-induced movement therapy. Eura Medicophys 2006;42:269-284.
103. Taub E. Somatosensory deafferentation research with monkeys: implications for rehabilitation medicine. In: Ince LP, ed. Behavioral psychology in rehabilitation medicine: clinical applications. New York: Williams & Wilkins, 1980:371-401.
104. Taub E, Uswatte G. Constraint-induced movement therapy: bridging from the primate laboratory to the stroke rehabilitation laboratory. J Rehabil Med 2003:34-40.
105. Wittenberg GF, Chen R, Ishii K, et al. Constraint-induced therapy in stroke: magnetic-stimulation motor maps and cerebral activation. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2003;17:48-57.
106. Boake C, Noser EA, Ro T, et al. Constraint-induced movement therapy during early stroke rehabilitation. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2007;21:14-24.
107. Dettmers C, Teske U, Hamzei F, et al. Distributed form of constraint-induced movement therapy improves functional outcome and quality of life after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:204-209.
108. Kunkel A, Kopp B, Muller G, et al. Constraint-induced movement therapy for motor recovery in chronic stroke patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80:624-628.
109. Liepert J, Miltner WH, Bauder H, et al. Motor cortex plasticity during constraint-induced movement therapy in stroke patients. Neurosci Lett 1998;250:5-8.
110. Miltner WH, Bauder H, Sommer M, et al. Effects of constraint-induced movement therapy on patients with chronic motor deficits after stroke: a replication. Stroke 1999;30:586-592.
111. Ro T, Noser E, Boake C, et al. Functional reorganization and recovery after constraint-induced movement therapy in subacute stroke: case reports. Neurocase 2006;12:50-60.
112. Shaw SE, Morris DM, Uswatte G, et al. Constraint-induced movement therapy for recovery of upper-limb function following traumatic brain injury. J Rehabil Res Dev 2005;42:769-778.
113. Sterr A, Elbert T, Berthold I, et al. Longer versus shorter daily constraint-induced movement therapy of chronic hemiparesis: an exploratory study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2002;83:1374-1377.
114. Taub E, Morris DM. Constraint-induced movement therapy to enhance recovery after stroke. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2001;3:279-286.
115. Taub E, Pidikiti RD, DeLuca SC, Crago JE. Effects of motor restriction of an unimpaired upper extremity and training on improving functional tasks and altering brain/behaviors. In: Toole JF, Good DC, eds. Imaging and neurologic rehabilitation. New York: Demos, 1996:133-154.
116. Taub E, Uswatt G. Constraint-induced movement therapy: answers and questions after two decades of research. NeuroRehabilitation 2006;21:93-95.
117. Taub E, Uswatte G, King DK, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of constraint-induced movement therapy for upper extremity after stroke. Stroke 2006;37:1045-1049.
118. Taub E, Uswatte G, Morris DM. Improved motor recovery after stroke and massive cortical reorganization following constraint-induced movement therapy. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2003;14:S77-S91.
119. Taub E, Uswatte G, Pidikiti R. Constraint-induced movement therapy: a new family of techniques with broad application to physical rehabilitation - a clinical review. J Rehabil Res Dev 1999;36:237-251.
120. Wolf SL, Winstein CJ, Miller JP, et al. Effect of constraint-induced movement therapy on upper extremity function 3 to 9 months after stroke: the EXCITE randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2006;296:2095-2104.
121. Charles J, Gordon AM. A critical review of constraint-induced movement therapy and forced use in children with hemiplegia. Neural Plast 2005;12:245-261, 263-272.
122. Charles J, Lavinder G, Gordon AM. Effects of constraint-induced therapy on hand function in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther 2001;13:68-76.
123. Charles JR, Gordon AM. A repeated course of constraint-induced movement therapy results in further improvement. Dev Med Child Neurol 2007;49:770-773.
124. Charles JR, Wolf SL, Schneider JA, Gordon AM. Efficacy of a child-friendly form of constraint-induced movement therapy in hemiplegic cerebral palsy: a randomized control trial. Dev Med Child Neurol 2006;48:635-642.
125. Deluca SC, Echols K, Law CR, Ramey SL. Intensive pediatric constraint-induced therapy for children with cerebral palsy: randomized, controlled, crossover trial. J Child Neurol 2006;21:931-938.
126. DeLuca SC, Echols K, Ramey SL, Taub E. Pediatric constraint-induced movement therapy for a young child with cerebral palsy: two episodes of care. Phys Ther 2003;83:1003-1013.
127. Gordon AM, Charles J, Wolf SL. Methods of constraint-induced movement therapy for children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy: development of a child-friendly intervention for improving upper-extremity function. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:837-844.
128. Gordon AM, Charles J, Wolf SL. Efficacy of constraint-induced movement therapy on involved upper-extremity use in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy is not age-dependent. Pediatrics 2006;117:e363-e373.
129. Hoare BJ, Wasiak J, Imms C, Carey L. Constraint-induced movement therapy in the treatment of the upper limb in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007:CD004149.
130. Taub E, Ramey SL, DeLuca S, Echols K. Efficacy of constraint-induced movement therapy for children with cerebral palsy with asymmetric motor impairment. Pediatrics 2004;113:305-312.
131. Willis JK, Morello A, Davie A, et al. Forced use treatment of childhood hemiparesis. Pediatrics 2002;110:94-96.
132. Barker AT, Jalinous R, Freeston IL. Non-invasive magnetic stimulation of human motor cortex. Lancet 1985;1:1106-1107.
133. Carey JR, Evans CD, Anderson DC, et al. Safety of 6-Hz Primed Low-Frequency rTMS in Stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2008;22:185-192.
134. Pascual-Leone A, Tormos JM, Keenan J, et al. Study and modulation of human cortical excitability with transcranial magnetic stimulation. J Clin Neurophysiol 1998;15:333-343.
135. Di Lazzaro V, Oliviero A, Berardelli A, et al. Direct demonstration of the effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on the excitability of the human motor cortex. Exp Brain Res 2002;144:549-553.
136. Peinemann A, Reimer B, Loer C, et al. Long-lasting increase in corticospinal excitability after 1800 pulses of subthreshold 5 Hz repetitive TMS to the primary motor cortex. Clin Neurophysiol 2004;115:1519-1526.
137. Malcolm MP, Triggs WJ, Light KE, et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation as an adjunct to constraint-induced therapy: an exploratory randomized controlled trial. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2007;86:707-715.
138. Wittenberg GF, Bastings EP, Fowlkes AM, et al. Dynamic course of intracortical TMS paired-pulse responses during recovery of motor function after stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2007;21:568-573.
139. Kirton A, Chen R, Gunraj C, et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for chronic hemiparesis in pediatric stroke: a proof-of-principle, randomized clinical trial. 36th National Meeting of the Child Neurology Society (Abstract), October 20, 2007; Quebec City, Canada.
140. Brann DW, Dhandapani K, Wakade C, et al. Neurotrophic and neuroprotective actions of estrogen: basic mechanisms and clinical implications. Steroids 2007;72:381-405.
141. Kohara A, Takahashi M, Yatsugi S, et al. Neuroprotective effects of the selective type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonist YM-202074 in rat stroke models. Brain Res 2008;1191:168-179.
142. Hamrick SE, Ferriero DM. The injury response in the term newborn brain: can we neuroprotect? Curr Opin Neurol 2003;16:147-154.
143. Shuaib A, Lees KR, Lyden P, et al. NXY-059 for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2007;357:562-571.
144. Schwarz S, Al Shajlawi F, Sick C, et al. Effects of prophylactic antibiotic therapy with mezlocillin plus sulbactam on the incidence and height of fever after severe acute ischemic stroke. The Mannheim Infection in Stroke Study (MISS). Stroke 2008;39:1220-1227.
145. Hypothermia after Cardiac Arrest Study Group. Mild therapeutic hypothermia to improve the neurologic outcome after cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 2002;346:549-556.
146. Shankaran S, Laptook AR, Ehrenkranz RA, et al. Whole-body hypothermia for neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1574-1584.
147. Darsalia V, Kallur T, Kokaia Z. Survival, migration and neuronal differentiation of human fetal striatal and cortical neural stem cells grafted in stroke-damaged rat striatum. Eur J Neurosci 2007;26:605-614.
148. Mueller D, Shamblott MJ, Fox HE, et al. Transplanted human embryonic germ cell-derived neural stem cells replace neurons and oligodendrocytes in the forebrain of neonatal mice with excitotoxic brain damage. J Neurosci Res 2005;82:592-608.
149. Roitberg BZ, Mangubat E, Chen EY, et al. Survival and early differentiation of human neural stem cells transplanted in a nonhuman primate model of stroke. J Neurosurg 2006;105:96-102.