Sweet and sour: The impact of sugars on disease

Rheumatology

Volumn 47, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 760-770

  Alavi, A ^a   Axford, J S ^a  

^a ST GEORGE'S UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Autoimmunity; Glycosylation; Immunoglobulin G; RA; RA biomarker; Sugar printing disease

Indexed keywords

ALPHA GALACTOSYLCERAMIDE; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; AUTOANTIGEN; CA 125 ANTIGEN; CARBOHYDRATE BINDING PROTEIN; FC RECEPTOR; FUCOIDIN; GALECTIN 1; GALECTIN 3; GELATINASE B; GLYCAN; GLYCOLIPID; GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN; GLYCOSYLTRANSFERASE; GLYCOVACCINE; IMINOSUGAR; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN A; IMMUNOGLOBULIN D; IMMUNOGLOBULIN E; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M; INTERLEUKIN 8; MANNOSE; MOLECULAR THERAPY AGENT; RHEUMATOID FACTOR; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 4; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ANTIBODY; VACCINE;

ANTIBODY DEPENDENT CELLULAR CYTOTOXICITY; ANTIGEN ANTIBODY COMPLEX; ASTHMA; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AUTOIMMUNITY; BACTERIAL ARTHRITIS; BINDING AFFINITY; CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DISEASE ACTIVITY; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; FUCOSYLATION; GAUCHER DISEASE; GLYCOBIOLOGY; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; JUVENILE RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; LIPIDOSIS; METASTASIS; MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY; NATURAL KILLER T CELL; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN GLYCOSYLATION; PROTEIN STRUCTURE; REMISSION; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SIALYLATION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SYNOVIOCYTE; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS;

ARTHRITIS, RHEUMATOID; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; GLYCOSYLATION; HUMANS; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; MUTATION; POLYSACCHARIDES;

EID: 44849133511     PISSN: 14620324     EISSN: 14620332     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/ken081     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. Nahalka J, Shao J, Gemeiner P. Oligosaccharides, neoglycoproteins and humanized plastics: Their biocatalytic synthesis and possible medical applications. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2007;46:1-12.
2. Alavi A, Axford JS. The pivotal nature of sugars in normal physiology and disease. Wien Med Wochenschr 2006;156:19-33.
3. Varki A. Nothing in glycobiology makes sense, except in the light of evolution. Cell 2006;126:841-5.
4. Varki ARC, Esko J, Freeze H, Hart G, Marth J. Essentials of glycobiology. Cold Spring Harbor: Laboratory Press Publications, 1999.
5. Cobb BA, Kasper DL. Coming of age: Carbohydrates and immunity. Eur J Immunol 2005;35:352-6.
6. Gabius HJ. Cell surface glycans: The why and how of their functionality as biochemical signals in lectin-mediated information transfer. Crit Rev Immunol 2006;26:43-79.
7. Schachter H. The clinical relevance of glycobiology. J Clin Invest 2001;108:1579-82.
8. Gabius HJ, Andre S, Kaltner H, Siebert HC. The sugar code: Functional lectinomics. Biochim Biophys Acta 2002;1572:165-77.
9. Wang X, Gu J, Ihara H, Miyoshi E, Honke K, Taniguchi N. Core fucosylation regulates epidermal growth factor receptor-mediated intracellular signaling. J Biol Chem 2006;281:2572-7.
10. Poe JC, Fujimoto Y, Hasegawa M et al. CD22 regulates B lymphocyte function in vivo through both ligand-dependent and ligand-independent mechanisms. Nat Immunol 2004;5:1078-87.
11. Das T, Mandal C. Variations in binding characteristics of glycosylated human C-reactive proteins in different pathological conditions. Glycoconj J 2004;20:537-43.
12. Pappu BP, Shrikant PA. Alteration of cell surface sialylation regulates antigen-induced naive CD8+ T cell responses. J Immunol 2004;173:275-84.
13. Dube DH, Bertozzi CR. Glycans in cancer and inflammation - potential for therapeutics and diagnostics. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2005;4:477-88.
14. Radcliffe CM, Arnold JN, Suter DM et al. Human follicular lymphoma cells contain oligomannose glycans in the antigen-binding site of the B-cell receptor. J Biol Chem 2007;282:7405-15.
15. Van Dyken SJ, Green RS, Marth JD. Structural and mechanistic features of protein O glycosylation linked to CD8+ T-cell apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol 2007;27:1096-111.
16. Hernandez JD, Nguyen JT, He J et al. Galectin-1 binds different CD43 glycoforms to cluster CD43 and regulate T cell death. J Immunol 2006;177:5328-36.
17. Jimenez D, Roda-Navarro P, Springer TA, Casasnovas JM. Contribution of N-linked glycans to the conformation and function of intercellular adhesion molecules (ICAMs). J Biol Chem 2005;280:5854-61.
18. Crocker PR, Varki A. Siglecs in the immune system. Immunology 2001;103:137-45.
19. Arnold JN, Dwek RA, Rudd PM, Sim RB. Mannan binding lectin and its interaction with immunoglobulins in health and in disease. Immunol Lett 2006;106:103-10.
20. von Gunten S, Simon HU. Sialic acid binding immunoglobulin-like lectins may regulate innate immune responses by modulating the life span of granulocytes. FASEB J 2006;20:601-5.
21. Alavi A, Axford JS. The glycosyltransferases. In: Isenberg DA, Rademacher TW, eds. Abnormalities of IgG glycosylation and immunological disorders. UK: Wiley, 1996;149-69.
22. Harrington LE, Galvan M, Baum LG, Altman JD, Ahmed R. Differentiating between memory and effector CD8T cells by altered expression of cell surface O-glycans. J Exp Med 2000;191:1241-6.
23. Lowe JB. Glycosylation in the control of selectin counter-receptor structure and function. Immunol Rev 2002;186:19-36.
24. Alavi A, Axford JS, Hay FC, Jones MG. Tissue-specific galactosyltransferase abnormalities in an experimental model of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Med Intern 1998;149:251-60.
25. Alavi A, Axford JS. Beta 1,4-galactosyltransferase variations in rheumatoid arthritis. Adv Exp Med Biol 1995;376:185-92.
26. Opdenakker G, Dillen C, Fiten P et al. Remnant epitopes, autoimmunity and glycosylation. Biochim Biophys Acta 2006;1760:610-5.
27. Watson M, Rudd PM, Bland M, Dwek RA, Axford JS. Sugar printing rheumatic diseases: A potential method for disease differentiation using immunoglobulin G oligosaccharides. Arthritis Rheum 1999;42:1682-90.
28. Axford J. The impact of glycobiology on medicine. Trends Immunol 2001;22:237-9.
29. Holland M, Takada K, Okumoto T et al. Hypogalactosylation of serum IgG in patients with ANCA-associated systemic vasculitis. Clin Exp Immunol 2002;129:183-90.
30. Jaeken J, Carchon H. Congenital disorders of glycosylation: A booming chapter of pediatrics. Curr Opin Pediatr 2004;16:434-9.
31. Lefebvre T, Guinez C, Dehennaut V, Beseme-Dekeyser O, Morelle W, Michalski JC. Does O-GlcNAc play a role in neurodegenerative diseases? Expert Rev Proteomics 2005;2:265-75.
32. Zitzmann N, Block T, Methta A et al. Glycosylation: Disease targets and therapy. Adv Exp Med Biol 2005;564:1-2.
33. Adams EW, Ratner DM, Bokesch HR, McMahon JB, O'Keefe BR, Seeberger PH. Oligosaccharide and glycoprotein microarrays as tools in HIV glycobiology; glycan-dependent gp120/protein interactions. Chem Biol 2004;11:875-81.
34. Hakomori S. Glycosylation defining cancer malignancy: New wine in an old bottle. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:10231-3.
35. Martin PT. Mechanisms of disease: Congenital muscular dystrophies - glycosylation takes center stage. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 2006;2:222-30.
36. Silveyra MX, Cuadrado-Corrales N, Marcos A et a. Altered glycosylation of acetylcholinesterase in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. J Neurochem 2006;96:97-104.
37. Campbell BJ, Yu LG, Rhodes JM. Altered glycosylation in inflammatory bowel disease: A possible role in cancer development. Glycoconj J 2001;18:851-8.
38. wopereis S, Abd Hamid UM, Critchley A et al. Abnormal glycosylation with hypersialylated O-glycans in patients with sialuria. Biochim Biophys Acta 2006;1762:598-607.
39. Oortwijn BD, Roos A, Royle L et al. Differential glycosylation of polymeric and monomeric IgA: A possible role in glomerular inflammation in IgA nephropathy. J Am 2006;17:3529-39.
40. Altmann F. The role of protein glycosylation in allergy. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2006;142:99-115.
41. Axford JS, ed. Glycobiology and medicine. In: Proceedings of the 7th Jenner Glycobiology and Medicine Symposium. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2005.
42. Axford JS. 7th Jenner Glycobiology and Medicine Symposium. Sunday 5 - Wednesday 8 September 2004. Adv Exp Med Biol 2005;564:v-viii.
43. Beum PV, Basma H, Bastola DR, Cheng PW. Mucin biosynthesis: Upregulation of core 2 beta 1,6 N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase by retinoic acid and Th2 cytokines in a human airway epithelial cell line. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2005;288:L116-24.
44. Gressner CA, Weiskirchen R, Gressner AM. Biomarkers of liver fibrosis: clinical translation of molecular pathogenesis or based on liver-dependent malfunction tests. Clin Chim Acta 2007;381:107-13.
45. Schulz BL, Sloane AJ, Robinson LJ et al. Glycosylation of sputum mucins is altered in cystic fibrosis patients. Glycobiology 2007;17:698-712.
46. Garcia-Vallejo JJ, van Dijk W, van Die I, Gringhuis SI. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha up-regulates the expression of beta1,4-galactosyltransferase I in primary human endothelial cells by mRNA stabilization. J Biol Chem 2005;280:12676-82.
47. Alavi A, Arden N, Spector TD, Axford JS. Immunoglobulin G glycosylation and clinical outcome in rheumatoid arthritis during pregnancy. J Rheumatol 2000;27:1379-85.
48. Chintalacharuvu SR, Nagy NU, Sigmund N, Nedrud JG, Amm ME, Emancipator SN. T cell cytokines determine the severity of experimental IqA nephropathy by regulating IgA glycosylation. Clin Exp Immunol 2001;126:326-33.
49. Yang X, Yip J, Anastassiades T, Harrison M, Brockhausen I. The action of TNFalpha and TGFbeta include specific alterations of the glycosylation of bovine and human chondrocytes. Biochim Biophys Acta 2007;1773:264-72.
50. Wu AM, Singh T, Wu JH, Lensch M, Andre S, Gabius HJ. Interaction profile of galectin-5 with free saccharides and mammalian glycoproteins: Probing its fine specificity and the effect of naturally clustered ligand presentation. Glycobiology 2006;16:524-37.
51. Taylor KR, Yamasaki K, Radek KA et al. Recognition of hyaluronan released in sterile injury involves a unique receptor complex dependent on TLR4, CD44 and MD-2. J Biol Chem 2007;282:18265-75.
52. Holm L, Frech K, Dzhambazov B, Holmdahl R, Kihlberg J, Linusson A. Quantitative structure-activity relationship of peptides binding to the class II major histocompatibility complex molecule A(q) associated with autoimmune arthritis. J Med Chem
53. Altmann F. The role of protein glycosylation in allergy. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2007:142:99-115.
54. Chui D, Sellakumar G, Green R et al. Genetic remodeling of protein glycosylation in vivo induces autoimmune disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:1142-7.
55. von Delwig A, Altmann DM, Isaacs JD et al. The impact of glycosylation on HLA-DR1-restricted T cell recognition of type II collagen in a mouse model. Arthritis Rheumn 2006;54:482-91.
56. Garratty G. Blood groups and disease: A historical perspective. Transfus Med Rev 2000;14:291-301.
57. Jefferis R. Glycosylation of recombinant antibody therapeutics. Biotechnol Prog 2005;21:11-6.
58. Parekh VV, Wilson MT, Van Kaer L. iNKT-cell responses to glycolipids. Crit Rev Immunol 2005;25:183-213.
59. Yang X, Lehotay M, Anastassiades T, Harrison M, Brockhausen I. The effect of TNF-alpha on glycosylation pathways in bovine synoviocytes. Biochem Cell Biol 2004;82:559-68.
60. Popko J, Marciniak J, Zalewska A, Maldyk P, Rogalski M, Zwierz K. The activity of exoglycosidases in the synovial memorane and knee fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 2006;35:189-92.
61. Ferens-Sieczkowska M, Kossowska B, Gancarz R et al. Fucosylation in synovial fluid as a novel clinical marker for differentiating joint diseases - a preliminary study. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2007;25:92-5.
62. Troelsen LN, Garred P, Madsen HO, Jacobsen S. Genetically determined high serum levels of mannose-binding lectin and agalactosyl IgG are associated with ischemic heart disease in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2007;56:21-9.
63. Neidhart M, Zaucke F, von Knoch R et al. Galectin-3 is induced in rheumatoid arthritis svnovial fibroblasts after adhesion to cartilace oligomeric matrix protein. Ann Rheum Dis 2005;64:419-24.
64. Bianco GA, Toscano MA, Ilarregui JM, Rabinovich GA. Impact of protein-glycan interactions in the regulation of autoimmunity and chronic inflammation. Autoimmun Rev 2006;5:349-56.
65. Radstake TR, van Lieshout AW, van Riel PL, van den Berg WB, Adema GJ. Dendritic cells, Fc{gamma} receptors, and Toll-like receptors: Potential allies in the battle against rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2005;64:1532-8.
66. Morgan R, Gao G, Pawling J, Dennis JW, Demetriou M, Li B. N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase V (Mgat5)-mediated N-glycosylation negatively regulates Th1 cytokine production by T cells. J Immunol 2004;173:7200-8.
67. Priatel JJ, Chui D, Hiraoka N et al. The ST3Gal-I sialyltransferase controls CD8+ T lymphocyte homeostasis by modulating O-glycan biosynthesis. Immunity 2000;12:273-83.
68. Baum LG. Developing a taste for sweets. Immunity 2002;16:5-8.
69. Cumashi A, Ushakova NA, Preobrazhenskaya ME et al. A comparative study of the antiinflammatory, anticoagulant, antiangiogenic, and antiadhesive activities of nine different fucoidans from brown seaweeds. Glycobiology 2007;17:541-52.
70. Ortutay Z, Polgar A, Gomor B et al. Synovial fluid exoglycosidases are predictors of rheumatoid arthritis and are effective in cartilage glycosaminoglycan depletion. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:2163-72.
71. Dzhambazov B, Holmdahl M, Yamada H et al. The major T cell epitope on type II collagen is glycosylated in normal cartilage but modified by arthritis in both rats and humans. Eur J Immunol 2005;35:357-66.
72. Gupta B, Raghav SK, Agrawal C, Chaturvedi VP, Das RH, Das HR. Anti-MBL autoantibodies in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: Prevalence and clinical significance. J Autoimmun 2006;27:125-33.
73. Raghav SK, Gupta B, Agrawal C et al. Altered expression and glycosylation of plasma proteins in rheumatoid arthritis. Glycoconj J 2006;23:167-73.
74. Higai K, Aoki Y, Azuma Y, Matsumoto K. Glycosylation of site-specific glycans of alpha(1)-acid glycoprotein and alterations in acute and chronic inflammation. Biochim Biophys Acta 2005;1725:128-35.
75. Axford JS, Cunnane G, Fitzgerald O, Bland JM, Bresnihan B, Frears ER. Rheumatic disease differentiation using immunoglobulin G sugar printing by high density electrophoresis. J Rheumatol 2003;30:2540-6.
76. Gomik I, Maravic G, Dumic J, Flogel M, Lauc G. Fucosylation of IgG heavy chains is increased in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Biochem 1999;32:605-8.
77. Young A, Sumar N, Bodman K et al. Agalactosyl IgG: An aid to differential diagnosis in early synovitis. Arthritis Rheum 1991;34:1425-9.
78. Isenberg DA, Rademacher TW, eds. Abnormalities of IgG glycosylation and immunological disorders. UK: Wiley, 1996.
79. Gindzienska-Sieskiewicz E, Klimiuk PA, Kisiel DG, Gindzienski A, Sierakowski S. The changes in monosaccharide composition of immunoglobulin G in the course of rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Rheumatol 2007;26:685-90.
80. Omtvedt LA, Royle L, Husby G et al. The glycan analysis of monoclonal antibodies secreted in deposition disorders indicates that subsets of plasma cells differentially process IgG glycans. Arthritis Rheum 2006;54:3433-40.
81. Alavi A, Pool AJ, Axford JS. New insights into rheumatoid arthritis associated glycosylation changes. Adv Exp Med Biol 2005;564:129-38.
82. Rademacher TW, Williams P, Dwek RA. Agalactosyl glycoforms of IgG autoantibodies are pathogenic. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:6123-7.
83. Axford JS, Mackenzie L, Lydyard PM, Hay FC, Isenberg DA, Roitt IM. Reduced B-cell galactosyltransferase activity in rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 1987;2:1486-8.
84. van Zeben D, Rook GA, Hazes JM et al. Early agalactosylation of IgG is associated with a more progressive disease course in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: Results of a follow-up study. Br J Rheumatol 1994;33:36-43.
85. Axford JS, Sumar N, Alavi A et al. Changes in normal glycosylation mechanisms in autoimmune rheumatic disease. J Clin Invest 1992;89:1021-31.
86. Das H, Atsumi T, Fukushima Y et al. Diagnostic value of antiagalactosyl IgG antibodies in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Rheumatol 2004;23:218-22.
87. Dong X, Storkus WJ, Salter RD. Binding and uptake of agalactosyl IgG by mannose receptor on macrophages and dendritic cells. J Immunol 1999;163:5427-34.
88. Malhotra R, Wormald MR, Rudd PM, Fischer PB, Dwek RA, Sim RB. Glycosylation changes of IgG associated with rheumatoid arthritis can activate complement via the mannose-binding protein. Nat Med 1995;1:237-43.
89. Matsumoto A, Shikata K, Takeuchi F, Kojima N, Mizuochi T. Autoantibody activity of IgG rheumatoid factor increases with decreasing levels of galactosylation and sialylation. J Biochem 2000;128:621-8.
90. Pasek M, Duk M, Podbielska M et al. Galactosylation of IgG from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients - changes during therapy. Glycoconj J 2006;23:463-71.
91. Soltys AJ, Bond A, Westwood OM, Hay FC. The effects of altered glycosylation of IgG on rheumatoid factor-binding and immune complex formation. Adv Exp Med Biol 1995;376:155-60.
92. Arnold JN, Wormald MR, Sim RB, Rudd PM, Dwek RA. The impact of glycosylation on the biological function and structure of human immunoglobulins. Annu Rev Immunol 2007;25:21-50.
93. Axford JS. Glycosylation and rheumatic disease: More than icing on the cake. J Rheumatol 1994;21:1791-5.
94. Natsume A, Wakitani M, Yamane-Ohnuki N et al. Fucose removal from complex-type oligosaccharide enhances the antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity of single-gene-encoded bispecific antibody comprising of two single-chain antibodies linked to the antibody constant region. J Biochem 2006;140:359-68.
95. Nechansky A, Schuster M, Jost W et al. Compensation of endogenous IgG mediated inhibition of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity by glyco-engineering of therapeutic antibodies. Mol Immunol 2007;44:1815-7.
96. Scallon BJ, Tam SH, McCarthy SG, Cai AN, Raju TS. Higher levels of sialylated Fc glycans in immunoglobulin G molecules can adversely impact functionality. Mol Immunol 2007;44:1524-34.
97. Kaneko Y, Nimmerjahn F, Ravetch JV. Anti-inflammatory activity of immunoglobulin G resulting from Fc sialylation. Science 2006;313:670.3.
98. Krapp S, Mimura Y, Jefferis R, Huber R, Sondermann P. Structural analysis of human IgG-Fc glycoforms reveals a correlation between glycosylation and structural integrity. J Mol Biol 2003;325:979-89.
99. Satoh M, Iida S, Shitara K. Non-fucosylated therapeutic antibodies as next-generation therapeutic antibodies. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2006;6:1161-73.
100. Guo N, Liu Y, Masuda Y et al. Repeated immunization induces the increase in fucose content on antigen-specific IgG N-linked oligosaccharides. Clin Biochem 2005;38:149-53.
101. Ferrara C, Stuart F, Sondermann P, Brunker P, Umana P. The carbohydrate at FcgammaRIIIa Asn-162. An element required for high affinity binding to nonfucosylated IgG glycoforms. J Biol Chem 2006;281:5032-6.
102. Matsumiya S. Yamaguchi Y, Saito J et al. Structural comparison of fucosylated and nonfucosylated Fc fragments of human immunoglobulin G1. J Mol Biol 2007;368:767-79.
103. Burton DR. Dwelk RA. Immunology. Sugar determines antibody activity. Science 2006;331:627-8.
104. Kobata A. The third chains of living organisms - a trail of glycobiology that started from the third floor of buildinq 4 in NIH. Arch Biochem Biophys 2004;426:107-21.
105. Alavi A, Axford J. Evalution of beta 1,4-galactosyltransferase in rheumatoid arthritis and its role in the glycosylation network associated with this disease. Glycoconj J 1995;12:206-10.
106. Alavi A, Axford JS, Pool AJ. Serum galactosyltransferase isoform changes in rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 2004;31:1513-20.
107. Flogel M, Lauc G, Gornik I, Macek B. Fucosylation and galactosylation of IgG heavy chains differ between acute and remission phases of juvenile chronic arthritis. Clin Chem Lab Med 1998;36:99-102.
108. Arnold JN, Royle L, Dwek RA, Rudd PM, Sim RB. Human immunoglobulin glycoslation and the lectin pathway of complement activation. Adv Exp Med Biol 2005;564:27-43.
109. Walsh G, Jefferis R. Post-translational modifications in the context at therapeutic proteins. Nat Biotechnol 2006;24:1241-52.
110. Imafuku Y, Yoshida H, Yamada Y. Reactivity of agalactosyl IgG with rheumatoid factor. Clin Chim Acta 2003;334:217-23.
111. Bond A, Kerr MA, Hay FC. Distinct oligosaccharide content of rheumatoid arthritis-derived immune complexes. Arthritis Rheum 1995;38:744-9.
112. Garred P, Madsen HO, Marquart H et al. Two edged role of mannose binding lectin in rheumatoid arthritis: A cross sectional study. J Rheumatol 2000;27:26-34.
113. Bond A, Alavi A, Adord JS et al. A detailed lectin analysis of IgG glycosylation, demonstrating disease specific changes in terminal galactose and N-acetylglucosamine. J Autoimmun 1997;10:77-85.
114. Tomana M, Schrohenloher RE, Bennett PH, del Puente A, Koopman WJ. Occurrence of deficient galactosylation of serum IgG prior to the onset of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatol Int 1994;13:217-20.
115. Martin K, Talukder R, Hay FC, Axford JS. Characterization of changes in IgG associated oligosaccharide profiles in rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis using fluorophore linked carbohydrate electrophoresis. J Rheumatol 2001;28:1531-6.
116. Bosques CJ, Raguram S, Sasiselkharan R. The sweet side of bio-marker discovery. Nat Biotechnol 2006;24:1100-1.
117. Becker T, Dziadek S, Wittrock S, Kunz H. Synthetic glycopeptides from the mucin family as potential tools in cancer immunotherapy. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2006;6:491-517.
118. Brown JR, Fuster MM, Li R, Varki N, Glass CA, Esko JD. A disaccharide-based inhibitor of glycosylation attenuates metastatic tumor cell dissemination. Clin Cancer Res 2006;12:2894-901.
119. Robinson MA, Charlton ST, Garnier P et al. LEAPT: Lectin-directed enzyme-activated prodrug therapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:14527-32.
120. Sinclair AM, Elliott S. Glycoengineering: The effect of glycosylation on the properties of therapeutic proteins. J Pharm Sci 2005;94:1626-35.
121. Lazar GA, Dang W, Karki S et al. Engineered antibodv Fc variants with enhanced effector function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U SA 2006; 103:4005-10.
122. Scallon B, McCarthy S, Radewonuk J et al. Quantitative in vivo comparisons of the Fc gamma receptor-dependent agonist activities of different fucosylation variants of An immunoglobulin G antibody. Int Immunopharmacol 2007;7:761-72.
123. Dwek RA, Butters TD, Platt FM, Zitzmann N. Targeting glycosylattion as a therapeutic approach. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2002;1:65-75.
124. Rogers ME, Sizova OV, Ferguson MA, Nikolaev AV, Bates PA. Synthetic glycovaccine protects against the bite of leishmania-infected sand flies. J Infect Dis 2006;194:512-8.
125. Verdrenqh M, Erlandsson-Harris H, Tarkowski A. Role of selectins in experimental Staphylococcus aureus-induced arthritis. Eur J Immunol 2000;30:1606-13.
126. Wells L, Whelan SA, Hart GW. O-GlcNAc: A regulatory post-translational modification. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003;302-435-41.
127. Furmanek A, Hofsteenge J. Protein C-mannosylation: Facts and questions. Acta Biochim Pol 2000;47:781-9.
128. Banerji S, Wriagt AJ, Noble M et al. Structures of the Cd44-hyaluronan complex provide insight into a fundamental carbohydrate-protein interaction. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2007;14:234-9.
129. Grewal PK, Hewitt JE. Glycosylation defects: A new mechanism for muscular dystrophy? Hum Mol Genet 2003;12(Spec No 2):R259-64.
130. Durand G, Seta N. Protein glycosylation and diseases: Blood and urinary oligosaccharides as markers for diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring. Clin Chem 2000;46:795-805.
131. Block TM, Comunale MA, Lowman M et a. Use of targeted glycoproteomics to identify serum glycoproteins that correlate with liver cancer in woodchucks and humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102:779-84.
132. Tabares G, Radcliffe CM, Barralbes S et al. Different glycan structures in prostate-specific antigen from prostate cancer sera in relation to seminal plasma PSA. Glycobiology 2006;16:132-45.
133. Garcia GG, Berger SB, Sadighi Akha AA, Miller RA. Age-associated changes in glycosylation of CD43 and CD45 on mouse CD4T cells. Eur J Immunol 2005;35:622-31.
134. Bakri RS, Afzali B, Covic A et al. Cardiovascular disease in renal allograft recipients is associated with elevated sialic acid or markers of inflammation. Clin Transplant 2004;18:201-4.
135. Lawson VA, Collins SJ, Masters CL. Hill AF, Prion protein glycosylation. J Neurochem 2005;93:793-801.
136. Bardor M, Nguyen DH, Diaz S, Varki A. Mechanism of uptake and incorporation of the non-human sialic acid N-glycolylneuraminic acid into human cells. J Biol Chem 2005;280:4228-37.
137. Havenaar EC, Axford JS, Brinkman-van der Linden EC et al. Severe rheumatoid arthritis prohibits the pregnancy-induced decrease in alpha3-fucosylation of alpha1-acid glycoprotein. Glycoconj J 1998;15:723-9.
138. Kobayashi I, Nogaki F, Kusano H et al. Interleukin-12 alters the physicochemical characteristics of serum and glomerular IgA and modifies glycosylation in a ddY mouse strain having high IgA levels. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2002;17:2108-16.
139. Carlow DA, Corbel SY, Williams MJ, Ziltener HJ. IL-2, -4, and -15 differentially regulate O-glycan branching and P-selectin ligand formation in activated CD8T cells. J Immunol 2001;167:6841-8.