Health effects of organic aerosols

Inhalation Toxicology

Volumn 20, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 257-288

  Mauderly, Joe L ^a   Chow, Judith C ^b  

^a LOVELACE RESPIRATORY RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^b DESERT RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ORGANIC CARBON; ORGANIC COMPOUND;

AEROSOL; AIR MONITORING; AIR POLLUTION; AIR QUALITY; AMBIENT AIR; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLIMATE CHANGE; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; GAS; HUMAN; MEASUREMENT; NONHUMAN; PARTICULATE MATTER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; STANDARDIZATION; VAPOR; VISIBILITY;

AEROSOLS; AIR POLLUTANTS; AIR POLLUTION; ANIMALS; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; HUMANS; INHALATION EXPOSURE; ORGANIC CHEMICALS; PARTICULATE MATTER; RISK ASSESSMENT;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 40049087836     PISSN: 08958378     EISSN: 10917691     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/08958370701866008     Document Type: Review

References (218)

1. Albert, R. E., Lewtas, J., Nesnow, S., Thorslund, T. W., and Anderson, E. 1983. Comparative potency method for cancer risk assessment: Application to diesel particulate emissions. Risk Anal. 3:101-117.
2. Altshuller, A. P. 1991. The production of carbon monoxide by the homogeneous NOx-induced photooxidation of volatile organic compounds in the troposphere. J. Atmos. Chem. 13:155-182.
3. Alves, C., Oliveira, T., Pio, C., Silvestre, A. J. D., Fialho, P., Barata, F., and Legrand, M. 2007. Characterisation of carbonaceous aerosols from the Azorean Island of Terceira. Atmos. Environ. 41(7):1359-1373.
4. Anderson, H. R., Bremner, S. A., Atkinson, R. W., Harrison, R. M., and Walters, S. 2001. Particulate matter and daily mortality and hospital admissions in the west midlands conurbation of the United Kingdom: Associations with fine and coarse particles, black smoke and sulphate. Occup. Environ. Med. 58(8):504-510.
5. Arey, J. B., Harger, W. P., Atkinson, R., and Winer, A. M. 1988. The contribution of nitrofluoranthenes and nitropyrenes to the mutagenic activity of ambient particulate organic matter collected in southern California. Mutat. Res. 207:45-51.
6. Arey, J. 2004. A tale of two diesels. Environ. Health Perspect. 112:812-813.
7. Atkinson, R. W., Bremner, S. A., Anderson, H. R., Strachan, D. P., Bland, J. M., and de Leon, A. P. 1999. Short-term associations between emergency hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular disease and outdoor air pollution in London. Arch. Environ. Health 54(6):398-411.
8. Bechtold, W. E., Dutcher, J. S., Mokler, B. V., Lopez, J. A., Wolf, I., Li, A. P., Henderson, T. R., and McClellan, R. O. 1984. Chemical and biological properties of diesel exhaust particles collected during selected segments of a simulated driving cycle. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 4:370-377.
9. Birch, M. E., and Cary, R. A. 1996. Elemental carbon-based method for occupational monitoring of particulate diesel exhaust: Methodology and exposure issues. Analyst 121:1183-1190.
10. Bond, T. C., Streets, D. G., Yarber, K. F., Nelson, S. M., Woo, J. H., and Klimont, Z. 2004. A technology-based global inventory of black and organic carbon emissions from combustion. J. Geophys. Res. 109(D14):D14203.
11. Brunekreef, B, Janssen, NAH, de Hartog, J, Harssema, H, Knape, M, and van Vliet, P. 1997. Air pollution from truck traffic and lung function in children living near motorways. Epidemiology 8(3):298-303.
12. CARB. 2007. CCAQS data management - Policies and procedures. Prepared by California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, CA. http://www.arb.ca.gov/airways/ CRPAQS/lookups.htm.
13. California Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Proposed identification of diesel exhaust as a toxic air contaminant: Health risk assessment for diesel exhaust - Appendix III, Part B. Sacramento: California Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment.
14. Campen, M. L., Babu, N. S., Helms, G. A., Pett, S., Wernly, J., Hehran, R., and McDonald, J. D. 2005. Nonparticulate components of diesel exhaust promote constriction in coronary arteries from ApoE-/-mice. Toxicol. Sci. 88:95-102.
15. Cao, G. L., Zhang, X. Y., and Zheng, F. C. 2006. Inventory of black carbon and organic carbon emissions from China. Atmos. Environ. 40(34):6516-6527.
16. Capen, C. C. 2001. Toxic responses of the endocrine system. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basis science of poisons, ed. C. D. Klaassen, pp. 711-759. New York: McGraw-Hill.
17. Chen, L.-W. A., Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Moosmüller, H., and Arnott, W. P. 2004. Modeling reflectance and transmittance of quartz-fiber filter samples containing elemental carbon particles: Implications for thermal/optical analysis. J. Aerosol Sci. 35(6):765-780.
18. 2.5 source contributions for the San Joaquin Valley with multivariate receptor models. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41(8):2818-2826.
19. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Pritchett, L. C., Pierson, W. R., Frazier, C. A., and Purcell, R. G. 1993. The DRI Thermal/Optical Reflectance carbon analysis system: Description, evaluation and applications in U.S. air quality studies. Atmos. Environ. 27A(8):1185-1201.
20. Chow, J. C. 2001. 2001 Critical review discussion - Diesel engines: Environmental impact and control. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 51(9):1258-1270.
21. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Crow, D., Lowenthal, D. H., and Merrifield, T. M. 2001. Comparison of IMPROVE and NIOSH carbon measurements. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 34(1):23-34.
22. Chow, J. C., Engelbrecht, J. P., Watson, J. G., Wilson, W. E., Frank, N. H., and Zhu, T. 2002. Designing monitoring networks to represent outdoor human exposure. Chemosphere 49(9):961-978.
23. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Chen, L.-W. A., Arnott, W. P., Moosmüller, H., and Fung, K. K. 2004a. Equivalence of elemental carbon by Thermal/Optical Reflectance and Transmittance with different temperature protocols. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38(16):4414-4422.
24. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Kuhns, H. D., Etyemezian, V., Lowenthal, D. H., Crow, D. J., Kohl, S. D., Engelbrecht, J. P., and Green, M. C. 2004b. Source profiles for industrial, mobile, and area sources in the Big Bend Regional Aerosol Visibility and Observational (BRAVO) Study. Chemosphere 54(2):185-208.
25. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Chen, L. W. A., Paredes-Miranda, G., Chang, M.-C. O., Trimble, D., Fung, K. K., Zhang, H., and Yu, J. Z. 2005. Refining temperature measures in thermal/optical carbon analysis. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 5(4):2961-2972.
26. Chow, J. C., and Watson, J. G. 2006. Overview of ultrafine particles and human health. WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ. 99:619-632. http://library. witpress.com/pages/PaperInfo.asp?PaperID=17217
27. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Mauderly, J. L., Costa, D. L., Wyzga, R. E., Vedal, S., Hidy, G. M., Altshuler, S. L., Marrack, D., Heuss, J. M., Wolff, G. T., Pope, C. A. III, and Dockery, D. W. 2006. 2006 critical review discussion - Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 56(10):1368-1380.
28. Chow, J. C., and Watson, J. G. 2007. Survey of measurement and composition of ultrafine particles. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 7(2):121-173.
29. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Chen, L.-W. A., Chang, M. C. O., Robinson, N. F., Trimble, D. L., and Kohl, S. D. 2007a. The IMPROVE_A temperature protocol for thermal/optical carbon analysis: Maintaining consistency with a long-term data base. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 57:1014-1023.
30. Chow, J. C., Yu, J. Z., Watson, J. G., Ho, S. S. H., Bohannan, T. L., Hays, M. D., and Fung, K. K. 2007b. The application of thermal methods for determining chemical composition of carbonaceous aerosols: A Review. J. Environ. Sci. Health A 42(11):1521-1541.
31. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Lowenthal, D. H., Chen, L. W. A., Zielinska, B., Mazzoleni, L. R., and Magliano, K. L. 2007c. Evaluation of organic markers for chemical mass balance source apportionment at the Fresno supersite. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 71:741-754.
32. Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Chen, L.-W. A., Ho, S. S. H., Sodeman, D. A., and Doraiswamy, P. 2008. Advances in integrated and continuous measurements for particle mass and chemical composition. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 58:141-163.
33. Chung, M. Y., Lazaro, R. A., Lim, D., Jackson, J., Lyon, J., Rendulic, D., and Hasson, A. S. 2006. Aerosol-borne quinones and reactive oxygen species generation by particulate matter extracts. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40(16):4880-4886.
34. Clark, C. R., Dutcher, J. S., Henderson, T. R., McClellan, R. O., Marshall, W. E., Naman, T. M., and Seizinger, D. E. 1984. Mutagenicity of automotive particulate exhaust: Influence of fuel extenders, additives and aromatic content. Adv. Mod. Environ. Toxicol. 6:109-122.
35. Clausen, P. A., Wilkins, C. K., Wolkof, P., and Nielsen, G. D. 2001. Chemical and biological evaluation of a reaction mixture of R-(+)-limonene/ ozone: Formation of strong airway irritants. Environ. Int. 26: 511-522.
36. Crimmins, B. S., and Baker, J. E. 2006. Improved GC/MS methods for measuring hourly PAH and nitro-PAH concentrations in urban particulate matter. Atmos. Environ. 40(35):6764-6779.
37. Delfino, R. J., Sioutas, C., and Malik, S. 2005. Potential role of ultrafine particles in associations between airborne particle mass and cardiovascular health. Environ. Health Perspect. 113(8):934-946.
38. DeMarini, D. M., Brooks, L. R., Warren, S. H., Kobayashi, T., Gilmour, M. I., and Singh, P. 2004. Bioassay-directed fractionation and salmonella mutagenicity of automobile and forklift diesel exhaust particles. Environ. Health Perspect. 112:814-819.
39. 3 and OH. J. Geophys. Res. 98:7149-7163.
40. Diaz-Sanchez, D., Tsien, A., Fleming, J., and Saxon, A. 1997. Combined diesel exhaust particulate and ragweed allergen challenge markedly enhances human in vivo nasal ragweed-specific IgE and skews cytokine production to a T helper cell 2-type pattern. J. Immunol. 158(5):2406-2413.
41. Donaldson, K., Stone, V., Seaton, A., and MacNee, W. 2001. Ambient particle inhalation and the cardiovascular system: Potential mechanisms. Environ. Health Perspect. 109(Suppl. 4):523-527.
42. Dung, C. H., Wu, S. C., and Yen, G. C. 2006. Genotoxicity and oxidative stress of the mutagenic compounds formed in fumes of heated soybean oil, sunflower oil, and lard. Toxicol. In Vitro 20(4):439-447.
43. Eatough, D. J., Sedar, B., Lewis, L., Hansen, L. D., Lewis, E. A., and Farber, R. J. 1989. Determination of semivolatile organic compounds in particles in the Grand Canyon area. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 10:438-449.
44. Eatough, D. J., Aghdaie, N., Cottam, M., Gammon, T., Hansen, L. D., Lewis, E. A., and Farber, R. J. 1990. Loss of semi-volatile organic compounds from particles during sampling on filters. In Transactions, visibility and fine particles, ed. C. V. Mathai, pp. 146-156. Pittsburgh, PA: Air & Waste Management Association.
45. 2.5 in Southern California urban and rural communities. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 38(5):447-455.
46. Elder, A., Gelein, R., Finkelstein, J., Phipps, R., Frampton, M., Utell, M., Kittelson, D. B., Watts, W. F., Hopke, P. K., Jeong, C. H., Kim, E., Liu, W., Zhao, W. X., Zhuo, L. M., Vincent, R., Kumarathasan, P., and Oberdörster, G. 2004a. On-road exposure to highway aerosols. 2. Exposures of aged, compromised rats. Inhal. Toxicol. 16(Suppl. 1):41-53.
47. Elder, A. C. P., Gelein, R., Azadniv, M., Frampton, M., Finkelstein, J., and Oberdörster, G. 2004b. Systemic effects of inhaled ultrafine particles in two compromised, aged rat strains. Inhal. Toxicol. 16(6-7):.461-471.
48. Elder, A., Couderc, J. P., Gelein, R., Eberly, S. I., Cox, C., Xia, X., Zareba, W., Hopke, P. K., Watts, W., Kettelson, D. B., Frampton, M., Utell, M., and Oberdorster, G. 2007. Effects of on-road highway aerosol exposures on autonomic responses in aged, spontaneously hypertensive rats. Inhal. Toxicol. 19:1-12.
49. Engling, G., Carrico, C. M., Kreidenweis, S. M., Collett, J. L., Jr., Day, D. E., Malm, W. C., Lincoln, E., Hao, W. M., Iinuma, Y., and Herrmann, H. 2006a. Determination of levoglucosan in biomass combustion aerosol by high performance anion exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection. Atmos. Environ. 40(Suppl.2):S299-S311.
50. Engling, G., Herckes, P., Kreidenweis, S. M., Malm, W. C., and Collett, J. L. 2006b. Composition of the fine organic aerosol in Yosemite National Park during the 2002 Yosemite Aerosol Characterization Study. Atmos. Environ. 40(16):2959-2972.
51. Ewing, P., Blomgren, B., Ryrfeldt, A., and Gerde, P. 2006. Increasing exposure levels cause an abrupt change in the absorption and metabolism of acutely inhaled benzo(a)pyrene in the isolated, ventilated, and perfused lung of the rat. Toxicol Sci. 91(2):332-340.
52. Fine, P. M., Cass, G. R., and Simoneit, B. R. T. 2004. Chemical characterization of fine particle emissions from the fireplace combustion of wood types grown in the Midwestern and Western United States. Environ. Eng. Sci. 21(3):387-409.
53. Fine, P. M., Chakrabarti, B., Krudysz, M., Schauer, J. J., and Sioutas, C. 2004. Diurnal variations of individual organic compound constituents of ultrafine and accumulation mode particulate matter in the Los Angeles basin. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38(5):1296-1304.
54. Fraser, M. P., Yue, Z. W., Tropp, R. J., Kohl, S. D., and Chow, J. C. 2002. Molecular composition of organic fine particulate matter in Houston, TX. Atmos. Environ. 36(38):5751-5758.
55. Fraser, M. P., Cass, G. R., and Simoneit, B. R. T. 2003. Air quality model evaluation data for organics 6. C3-C24 organic acids. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37(3):446-453.
56. Fraser, M. P., Buzcu, B., Yue, Z. W., McGaughey, G. R., Desai, N. R., Allen, D. T., Seila, R. L., Lonneman, W. A., and Harley, R. A. 2003. Separation of fine particulate matter emitted from gasoline and diesel vehicles using chemical mass balancing techniques. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37(17):3904-3909.
57. Gao, S., Hegg, D. A., Hobbs, P. V., Kirchstetter, T. W., Magi, B. I., and Sadilek, M. 2003. Water-soluble organic components in aerosols associated with savanna fires in southern Africa: Identification, evolution and distribution. J. Geophys. Res. 108(D13):SAF27-1-SAF27-16.
58. Ghio, A. J., and Quigley, D. R. 1994. Complexation of iron by humic-like substances in lung tissue: Role in coal workers' pneumoconiosis. Am. J. Physiol. 267:L173-L179.
59. Ghio, A. J., Stonehuerner, J., and Quigley, D. R. 1994. Humic-like substances in cigarette smoke condensate and lung tissue of smokers. Am. J. Physiol 266:L382-L388.
60. Ghio, A. J. 2004. Biological effects of Utah Valley ambient air particles in humans: A review. J. Aerosol Me. Deposition Clearance Effects Lung 17(2):157-164.
61. 2.5: A fine particle standard, eds. J. C. Chow and P. Koutrakis, pp. 677-698. Pittsburgh, PA: Air & Waste Management Association.
62. Gora, R., and Hutta, M. 2005. Reversed-phase liquid chromatographic characterization and analysis of air particulates humic-like substances in presence of pollen. J. Chromatogr. A 1084:39-45.
63. Graber, E. R., and Rudich, Y. 2006. Atmospheric HULIS: How humic-like are they? A comprehensive and critical review. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 6:729-753.
64. Green, L. C., and Armstrong, S. R. 2003. Particulate matter in ambient air and mortality: toxicologic perspectives. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 38(3):326-335.
65. Gregus, Z., and Klaassen, C. D. 2001. Mechanisms of toxicity. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons, ed. C. D. Klaassen, pp. 35-81. New York: McGraw-Hill.
66. Hansen, D. A., Edgerton, E., Hartsell, B., Jansen, J., Burge, H., Koutrakis, P., Rogers, C., Suh, H., Chow, J. C., Zielinska, B., Mc-Murry, P., Mulholland, J., Russell, A., and Rasmussen, R. 2006. Air quality measurements for the aerosol research and inhalation epidemiology study. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 56(10):1445-1458.
67. Hays, M. D., and Lavrich, R. J. 2007. Developments in direct thermal extraction - GC/MS of fine aerosols. Trends Anal. Chem. 26(2):88-102.
68. Heintzenberg, J. 1989. Fine particles in the global troposphere. Tellus Ser. B Chem. Phys. Meteorol. 41B:149-160.
69. Highwood, E. J., and Kinnersley, R. P. 2006. When smoke gets in our eyes: The multiple impacts of atmospheric black carbon on climate, air quality and health. Environ. Int. 32(4):560-566.
70. Hinds, W. C. 1999. Aerosol technology: Properties, behavior, and measurement of airborne particles, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
71. Ho, S. S. H., and Yu, J. 2002. Feasibility of collection and analysis of airborne carbonyls by on-sorbent derivatization and thermal desorption. Anal. Chem. 74(6): 1232-1240.
72. Ho, S. S. H., and Yu, J. Z. 2004a. Determination of airborne carbonyls: Comparison of a thermal desorption/GC method with the standard DNPH/HPLC method. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38(3):862-870.
73. Ho, S. S. H., and Yu, J. Z. 2004b. In-injection port thermal desorption and subsequent gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and n-alkanes in atmospheric aerosol samples. J. Chromatogr. A 1059(1-2):121-129.
74. Ho, S. S. H., Yu, J. Z., Chu, K. W., and Yeung, L. L. 2006. Carbonyl emissions from commercial cooking sources in Hong Kong. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 56(8):1091-1098.
75. Hoek, G., Brunekreef, B., Goldbohm, S., Fischer, P., and van den Brandt, P. A. 2002. Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: A cohort study. Lancet 360(9341):1203-1209.
76. Hopke, P. K., Ito, K., Mar, T., Christensen, W. F., Eatough, D. J., Henry, R. C., Kim, E., Laden, F., Lall, R., Larson, T. V., Liu, H., Neas, L., Pinto, J., Stolzel, M., Suh, H., Paatero, P., and Thurston, G. D. 2005. PM source apportionment and health effects: 1. Intercomparison of source apportionment results. J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 16:275-286.
77. 10 in health studies. Atmos. Environ. 30(14): 2649-2650.
78. Huebert, B. J., and Charlson, R. J. 2000. Uncertainties in data on organic aerosols. Tellus 52B(5):1249-1255.
79. IPCC. 2007. Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Summary for policymakers. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Prepared by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.ipcc.ch/ SPM2feb07.pdf
80. Jacobs, J., Kreutzer, R., and Smith, D. 1997. Burning and asthma hospitalizations, Butte County, California. Environ. Health Perspect. 105:980-985.
81. Kafoury, R. M., and Kelley, J. 2005. Ozone enhances diesel exhaust particles (DEP)-induced interleukin-8 (IL-8) gene expression in human airway epithelial cells through activation of nuclear factors-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and IL-6 (NF-IL6). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2(3-4):403-410.
82. Kawamura, K., and Yasui, O. 2005. Diurnal changes in the distribution of dicarboxylic acids, ketocarboxylic acids and dicarbonyls in the urban Tokyo atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 39(10):1945-1960.
83. Khalek, I. A. 2004. Nitro-PAH artifact investigation, final report. San Antonio, TX: Southwest Research Institute.
84. Kim, E., and Hopke, P. K. 2004. Source apportionment of fine particles at Washington, DC, utilizing temperature-resolved carbon fractions. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 54(7):773-785.
85. Kirchstetter, T. W., Corrigan, C. E., and Novakov, T. 2001. Laboratory and field investigation of the adsorption of gaseous organic compounds onto quartz filters. Atmos. Environ. 35(9):1663-1671.
86. Kittelson, D. B., Watts, W. F., Johnson, J. P., Remerowki, M. L., Ische, E. E., Oberdörster, G., Gelein, R. A., Elder, A., Hopke, P. K., Kim, E., Zhao, W., Zhou, L., and Jeong, C. H. 2004. On-road exposure to highway aerosols. 1. Aerosol and gas measurements. Inhal. Toxicol. 16(Suppl. 1):31-39.
87. Klassen, C. D. 2001. Cassarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons. New York: McGraw-Hill.
88. Klemm, R. J., Lipfert, F. W., Wyzga, R. E., and Gust, C. 2004. Daily mortality and air pollution in Atlanta: Two years of data from ARIES. Inhal. Toxicol. 16(Suppl. 1):131-141.
89. Klena, J., and Wolkoff, P. 2004. Changes in eye blink frequency as a measure of trigeminal stimulation by exposure to limonene oxidation products, isoprene oxidation products, and nitrate radicals. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 77:235-243.
90. Knaapen, A. M., Borm, P. J. A., Albrecht, C., and Schins, R. P. F. 2004. Inhaled particles and lung cancer. Part A: Mechanisms. Int. J. Cancer 109(6):799-809.
91. Kumagai, Y., Koide, S., Taguchi, K., Endo, A., Nakai, Y., Yoshikawa, T., and Shimojo, N. 2002. Oxidation of proximal protein sulfhydryls by phenanthraquinone, a component of diesel exhaust particles. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 15(4):483-489.
92. Kunzli, N., Avol, E., Wu, J., Gauderman, W. J., Rappaport, E., Millstein, J., Bennion, J., McConnell, R., Gilliland, F. D., Berhane, K., Lurmann, F., Winer, A., and Peters, J. M. 2006. Health effects of the 2003 Southern California wildfires on children. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 174(11):1221-1228.
93. Laeher, L. P., Brauer, M., Lipsett, M., Zelikoff, J. T., Simpson, C. D., Koenig, J. Q., and Smith, K. R. 2007. Woodsmoke health effects: A review. Inhal. Toxicol. 19:67-106.
94. 2 in six European cities (EXPOLIS study). Atmos. Environ. 40(7):1299-1313.
95. Lewtas, J. 1988. Genotoxicity of complex mixtures: Strategies for the identification and comparative assessment of airborne mutagens and carcinogens from combustion sources. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 10:571-589.
96. Lewtas, J. 2005. Combustion emissions: Contribution to air pollution, human exposure, and risk for cancer and related effects. In Air pollutants and the respiratory tract, 2nd ed., Volume 204, eds. W. M. Foster and D. L. Costa, pp. 357-403. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
97. Li, N., Sioutas, C., Cho, A., Schmitz, D., Misra, C., Sempf, J., Wang, M. Y., Oberley, T., Froines, J., and Nel, A. 2003. Ultrafine particulate pollutants induce oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. Environ. Health Perspect. 111(4):455-460.
98. Limbeck, A., Handler, M., Neuberger, B., Klatzer, B., and Puxbaum, H. 2005. Carbon specific analysis of humic like substances in atmospheric aerosol and precipitation samples. Anal. Chem. 77:7288-7293.
99. Lin, C. Y., Boland, B. C., Lee, Y. J., Salemi, M. R., Morin, D., Miller, L. A., Plopper, C. G., and Buckpitt, A. R. 2006. Identification of proteins adducted by reactive metabolites of naphthalene and 1-nitronaphthalene in dissected airways of rhesus macaques. Proteomics 6:972-982.
100. 2.5 constituents and related air quality variables as predictors of survival in a cohort of U. S. military veterans. Inhal. Toxicol. 18(9):645-657.
101. Lippmann, M., Gordon, T., and Chen, L. C. 2005. Effects of subchronic exposures to concentrated ambient particles (CAPs) in mice: I. Introduction, objectives, and experimental plan. Inhal. Toxicol. 17(4-5):177-187.
102. Lloyd, A. C., and Cackette, T. A. 2001. Critical review - Diesel engines: Environmental impact and control. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 51(6):809-847.
103. Lund, A. K., Knuckles, T. L., Akata, C. O., Shohet, R., McDonald, J. D., Gigliotti, A., Seagrave, J. C., and Campen, M. J. 2007. Gasoline exhaust emissions induce vascular remodeling pathways involved in atherosclerosis. Toxicol. Sci. 95:485-494.
104. Maciejczyk, P., and Chen, L. C. 2005. Effects of subchronic exposures to concentrated ambient particles (CAPs) in mice: VIII. Source-related daily variations in in vitro responses to CAPs. Inhal. Toxicol. 17(4-5):243-253.
105. Madden, M. C., Richards, J. H., Dailey, L. A., Hatch, G. E., and Ghio, A. J. 2000. Effect of ozone on diesel exhaust particle toxicity in rat lung. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 168(2):140-148.
106. Maejima, K., Tamura, K., Nakajima, T., Taniguchi, Y., Saito, S., and Takenaka, H. 2001. Effects of the inhalation of diesel exhaust, kanto loam dust, or diesel exhaust without particles on immune responses in mice exposed to Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) pollen. Inhal. Toxicol. 13:1047-1063.
107. Mar, T. F., Norris, G. A., Koenig, J. Q., and Larson, T. V. 2000. Associations between air pollution and mortality in Phoenix, 1995-1997. Environ. Health Perspect. 108(4):347-353.
108. Martin, O. V., Lester, J. N., Voulvoulis, N., and Boobis, A. R. 2007. Human health and endocrine disruption: A simple multi-criteria framework for the quantitative assessment of endpoint_Specific risks in a context of scientific uncertainty. Toxicol. Sci. 98(2):332-347.
109. Matsumoto, K., and Uematsu, M. 2005. Free amino acids in marine aerosols over the western North Pacific Ocean. Atmos. Environ. 39(11):2163-2170.
110. Mauderly, J. L., and McCunney, R. J. 1996. Particle overload in the rat lung and lung cancer: Implications for human risk assessment. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
111. Mauderly, J. L. 2004. Health effects of complex mixtures: Where are we and where do we need to be? In Effects of air contaminants on the respiratory tract - Interpretations from molecules to meta analysis, pp. 43-52. Fraunhofer: IRB Verlag.
112. Mauderly, J. L. 2006. Health hazards of complex environmental exposures: A difficult challenge to inhalation toxicology. Inhal. Toxicol. 18(2):137-141.
113. Mauderly, J. L., and Garshick, E. 2007. Diesel exhaust. In Environmental toxicants: Human exposures and their health effects, 3rd ed., ed. M. Lippmann, chap. 17. New York: Wiley.
114. Mazurek, M. A., Hildemann, L. M., Cass, G. R., Simoneit, B. R. T., and Rogge, W. F. 1993. Methods of analysis for complex organic aerosol mixtures from urban emission sources of particulate carbon. In Sampling and analysis of airborne pollutants, eds. E. D. Winegar and L. H. Keith, pp. 177-190. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis.
115. McDonald, J. D., Barr, E. B., White, R. K., Chow, J. C., Schauer, J. J., Zielinska, B., and Grosjean, E. 2004a. Generation and characterization of four dilutions of diesel engine exhaust for a subchronic inhalation study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38(9):2513-2522.
116. McDonald, J. D., Eide, I., Seagrave, J., Zielinska, B., Whitney, K., Lawson, D. R., and Mauderly, J. L. 2004b. Relationship between composition and toxicity of motor vehicle emission samples. Environ. Health Perspect. 112(15):1527-1538.
117. McDonald, J. D., White, R. K., Barr, E. B., Zielinska, B., Chow, J. C., and Grosjean, E. 2006. Generation and characterization of hardwood smoke inhalation exposure atmospheres. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 40(8):573-584.
118. McDonald, J. D., Reed, M. D., Barrett, E. G., Campen, M. J., Seagrave, J. C., and Mauderly, J. L. 2007. Health effects of inhaled gasoline engine emissions. Inhal. Toxicol. 19(Suppl.1):107-116.
119. McDow, S. R., and Huntzicker, J. J. 1990. Vapor adsorption artifact in the sampling of organic aerosol: Face velocity effects. Atmos. Environ. 24A(10):2563-2571.
120. Meems, N., Steinberg, C. E. W., and Wiegand, C. 2004. Direct and interacting toxicological effects on the waterflea (Daphnia magna) by natural organic matter, synthetic humic substances and cypermethrin. Sci. Total Environ. 319(1-3):123-136.
121. Miguel, A. H., Eiguren-Fernandez, A., Jaques, P. A., Froines, J. R., Grant, B. L., Mayo, P. R., and Sioutas, C. 2004. Seasonal variation of the particle size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and of major aerosol species in Claremont, California. Atmos. Environ. 38(20):3241-3251.
122. Mills, N. L., Tornqvist, H., Robinson, S. D., Gonzalez, M., Darnley, K., MacNee, W., Boon, N. A., Donaldson, K., Blomberg, A., Sandstrom, T., and Newby, D. E. 2005. Diesel exhaust inhalation causes vascular dysfunction and impaired endogenous fibrinolysis. Circulation 112(25):3930-3936.
123. Molinelli, A. R., Santacana, G. E., Madden, M. C., and Jimenez, B. D. 2006. Toxicity and metal content of organic solvent extracts from airborne particulate matter in Puerto Rico. Environ. Res. 102:314-325.
124. Morawska, L., Thomas, S., Gilbert, D., Greenaway, C., and Rijnders, E. 1999. A study of the horizontal and vertical profile of submicrometer particles in relation to a busy road. Atmos. Environ. 33(8):1261-1274.
125. 10 in health studies? Atmos. Environ. 29(8):959-962.
126. Muir, D., and Laxen, D. P. H. 1996. Authors' reply. Atmos. Environ. 30(14):2648.
127. Muranaka, M., Suzuki, S., Koizumi, K., Takafuji, S., Miyamoto, T., Ikemori, R., and Tokiwa, H. 1986. Adjuvant activity of diesel-exhaust particulates for the production of IgE antibody in mice. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 77(4):616-623.
128. Naeher, L. P., Brauer, M., Lipsett, M., Zelikoff, J. T., Simpson, C. D., Koenig, J. Q., and Smith, K. R. 2007. Woodsmoke health effects: A review. Inhal. Toxicol. 19(1):67-106.
129. National Research Council. 2004. Research priorities for airborne particulate matter IV. Continuing research progress. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
130. NIOSH. 1999. Method 5040 Issue 3 (Interim): Elemental carbon (diesel exhaust). In NIOSH manual of analytical methods, pp. 1-9. Cincinnati, OH: National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health.
131. Ostro, B., Broadwin, R., Green, S., Feng, W.-Y., and Lipsett, M. 2006. Fine particulate air pollution and mortality in nine California counties: Results from CALFINE. Environ. Health Perspect. 114:29-33.
132. Pankow, J. F. 1993. A simple box model for the annual cycle of partitioning of semi-volatile organic compounds between the atmosphere and the Earth's surface. Atmos. Environ. 27A(7): 1139-1152.
133. Park, SK, O'Neill, MS, Wright, RO, Hu, H, Vokonas, PS, Sparrow, D, Suh, H, and Schwartz, J. 2006. HFE genotype, particulate air pollution, and heart rate variability: A gene-environment interaction. Circulation 114:2798-2805.
134. Paulson, S. E., and Seinfeld, J. H. 1992. Development and evaluation of a photooxidation mechanism for isoprene. J. Geophys. Res. 97(D18):20703-20715.
135. Penttinen, P., Alm, S., Ruuskanen, J., and Pekkanen, J. 2000. Measuring reflectance of TSP-filters for retrospective health studies. Atmos. Environ. 34(16):2581-2586.
136. 2.5 by the EPA/NIOSH method. In Proceedings, Symposium on Air Quality Measurement Methods and Technology - 2002, eds. E. D. Winegar and R. J. Tropp, pp. 83-1-83-19. Pittsburgh, PA: Air & Waste Management Association.
137. 2.5 at the Fresno supersite. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 52(1):3-4.
138. Pope, C. A. III, and Dockery, D. W. 2006. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 56(6):709-742.
139. Prince, M. M., Ruder, A. M., Hein, M. J., Waters, M. A., Whelan, E. A., Nilsen, N., Ward, E. M., Schnorr, T. M., Laber, P. A., and Davis-King, K. E. 2006. Mortality and exposure response among 14,458 electrical capacitor manufacturing workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Environ. Health Perspect. 114(10):1508-1514.
140. 2.5 associated organic compounds in central California. Atmos. Environ. 40(2):290-303.
141. Rogge, W. F., Hildemann, L. M., Mazurek, M. A., Cass, G. R., and Simoneit, B. R. T. 1991. Sources of fine organic aerosol - 1. Charbroilers and meat cooking operations. Enivron. Sci. Technol. 25(6):1112-1125.
142. Rogge, W. F., Hildemann, L. M., Mazurek, M. A., Cass, G. R., and Simoneit, B. R. T. 1998. Sources of fine organic aerosol - 9. Pine, oak, and synthetic log combustion in residential fireplaces. Enivron. Sci. Technol. 32(1):13-22.
143. Rohr, A. C., Wilkins, C. K., Clausen, P. A., Hammer, M., Nielsen, G. D., Spengler, J. D., and Wolkoff, P. 2002. Upper airway and pulmonary effects of oxidation products of (+)-alpha-pinene, d-limonene, and isoprene in BALB/c mice. Inhal. Toxicol. 14(7):663-684.
144. Rohr, A. C., Shore, S. A., and Spengler, J. D. 2003. Repeated exposure to isoprene oxidation products causes enhanced respiratory tract effects in multiple murine strains. Inhal. Toxicol. 15(12):1191-1207.
145. Rudell, B., Blomberg, A., Helleday, R., Ledin, M. C., Lundback, B., Stjernberg, N., Horstedt, P., and Sandstrom, T. 1999. Bronchoalveolar inflammation after exposure to diesel exhaust: Comparison between unfiltered and particle trap filtered exhaust. Occup. Environ. Med. 56(8):527-534.
146. Saldiva, P. H. N., Clarke, R. W., Coull, B. A., Stearns, R. C., Lawrence, J., Krishna Murthy, G. G., Diaz, E., Koutrakis, P., Suh, H., Tsuda, A., and Godleski, J. J. 2002. Lung inflammation induced by concentrated ambient air particles is related to particle composition. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165(12):1610-1617.
147. Samet, J. M. 2000. What properties of particulate matter are responsible for health effects? Inhal. Toxicol. 12(Suppl 1):19-21.
148. Saxena, P., and Hildemann, L. M. 1996. Water-soluble organics in atmospheric particles: A critical reviewof the literature and application of thermodynamics to identify candidate compounds. Atmos. Chem. 24(1):57-109.
149. 32 organic compounds from gasoline-powered motor vehicles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36(6):1169-1180.
150. Schlesinger, R. B., Kunzli, N., Hidy, G. M., Gotschi, T., and Jerrett, M. 2006. The health relevance of ambient particulate matter characteristics: Coherence of toxicological and epidemiological inferences. Inhal. Toxicol. 18(2):95-125.
151. Schuetzle, D., and Lewtas, J. 1986. Bioassay-directed chemical analysis in environmental research. Anal. Chem. 58:1060A-1075A.
152. Schwartz, J., Park, S. K., O'Neill, M. S., Vokonas, P. S., Sparrow, D., Weiss, S., and Kelsey, K. 2005. Glutathione-S-transferase M1, obesity, statins, and autonomic effects of particles: Gene-by-drug-by-environment interaction. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 172:1529-1533.
153. Seagrave, J. C., Berger, J., Zielinska, B., Sagebiel, J., Rogers, C. F., McDonald, J. D., and Mauderly, J. L. 2001. Comparative acute toxicities of particulate matter (PM) and semi-volatile organic compound (SVOC) fractions of traffic tunnel air. Toxicologist 60(1):192.
154. Seagrave, J. C., McDonald, J. D., Gigliotti, A. P., Nikula, K. J., Seilkop, S. K., Gurevich, M., and Mauderly, J. L. 2002. Mutagenicity and in vivo toxicity of combined particulate and semivolatile organic fractions of gasoline and diesel engine emissions. Toxicol. Sci. 70(2):212-226.
155. Seagrave, J. C., Mauderly, J. L., and Seilkop, S. K. 2003. In vitro relative toxicity screening of combined particulate and semivolatile organic fractions of gasoline and diesel engine emissions. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 66(12):1113-1132.
156. Seagrave, J. C., Gigliotti, A., McDonald, J. D., Seilkop, S. K., Whitney, K. A., Zielinska, B., and Mauderly, J. L. 2005. Composition, toxicity, and mutagenicity of particulate and semivolatile emissions from heavy-duty compressed natural gas-powered vehicles. Toxicol. Sci. 87(1):232-241.
157. Seagrave, J., McDonald, J. D., Bedrick, E., Edgerton, E. S., Gigliotti, A. P., Jansen, J. J., Ke, L., Naeher, L. P., Seilkop, S. K., Zheng, M., and Mauderly, J. L. 2006. Lung toxicity of ambient particulate matter from southeastern US sites with different contributing sources: Relationships between composition and effects. Environ. Health Perspect. 114(9):1387-1393.
158. Seinfeld, J. H., and Pankow, J. F. 2003. Organic atmospheric particulate material. Annu. Rev. Phys Chem. 54:121-140.
159. Simoneit, B. R. T., and Mazurek, M. A. 1982. Organic matter of the troposphere II - Natural background of biogenic lipid matter in aerosols over the rural western United States. Atmos. Environ. 16(9):2139-2159.
160. Simoneit, B. R. T. 1999. A review of biomarker compounds as source indicators and tracers for air pollution. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 6(3):159-169.
161. Simoneit, B. R. T., Schauer, J. J., Nolte, C. G., Oros, D. R., Elias, V. O., Fraser, M. P., Rogge, W. F., and Cass, G. R. 1999. Levoglucosan, a tracer for cellulose in biomass burning and atmospheric particles. Atmos. Environ. 33(2):173-182.
162. Simoneit, B. R. T., Rushdi, A. I., Bin Abas, M. R., and Didyk, B. M. 2003. Alkyl amides and nitriles as novel tracers for biomass burning. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37(1):16-21.
163. Singh, P., DeMarini, D. M., Dick, C. A. J., Tabor, D. G., Ryan, J. V., Linak, W. P., Kobayashi, T., and Gilmour, M. I. 2004. Sample characterization of automobile and forklift diesel exhaust particles and comparative pulmonary toxicity in mice. Environ. Health Perspect. 112(8):820-825.
164. Solomons, T. W. G. 1996. Organic chemistry, 6th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
165. South Coast Air Quality Management District. 2000. Multiple air toxics exposure study in the South Coast Air Basin MATES-II - Final report. Diamond Bar, CA: South Coast Air Quality Management District.
166. Steerenberg, P. A., van Amelsvoort, L., Lovik, M., Hetland, R. B., Alberg, T., Halatek, T., Bloemen, H. J. T., Rydzynski, K., Swaen, G., Schwarze, P., Dybing, E., and Cassee, F. R. 2006. Relation between sources of particulate air pollution and biological effect parameters in samples from four European cities: An exploratory study. Inhal. Toxicol. 18(5):333-346.
167. Stenfors, N., Nordenhall, C., Salvi, S. S., Mudway, I., Soderberg, M., Blomberg, A., Helleday, R., Levin, J. O., Holgate, S. T., Kelly, F. J., Frew, A. J., and Sandstrom, T. 2004. Different airway inflammatory responses in asthmatic and healthy humans exposed to diesel. Eur. Respir J. 23(1):82-86.
168. Surratt, J. D., Kroll, J. H., Kleinsienst, T. E., Edney, E. O., Claeys, M., Sorooshian, A., Ng, N. L., Offenberg, J. H., Lewandowski, M., Jaoui, M., Jaouri, R., Flagan, R. C., and Seinfield, J. H. 2007. Evidence for organosulfates in secondary organic aerosol. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41(2):517-527.
169. Tai, M.-H., Upham, B. L., Olson, L. K., Tsa, M.-S., Reed, D. N., Jr., and Trosk, J. E. 2007. Cigarette smoke components inhibited intercellular communication and differentiation in human pancreatic ductal epithelial cells. Int. J. Cancer 120(9):1855-1862.
170. Takanaka, H., Zhang, K., Diaz-Sanchez, D., Tsien, A., and Saxon, A. 1995. Enhanced human IgE production results from exposure to the aromatic hydrocarbons from diesel exhaust: Direct effects on B-cell IgE production. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 95(1):103-115.
171. Thompson, A. M., and Stewart, R. W. 1991. Effect of chemical kinetics uncertainties on calculated constituents in a tropospheric photochemical model. J. Geophys. Res. 96:13089-13108.
172. Timofeyev, M. A., Shatilina, Z. M., Bedulina, D. S., Menzel, R., and Steinberg, C. E. 2007. Natural organic matter (NOM) has the potential to modify the multixenobiotic resistance (MXR) activity in freshwater amphibipods Eulimnogammarus cyaneus and E. verrucosus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 146(4):496-503.
173. Tolbert, P., Klein, M., Metzger, K., Peel, J., Flanders, W. D., Todd, K., Mulholland, J., Ryan, P. B., and Frumkin, H. 2001. Particulate pollution and cardiorespiratory emergency department visits in Atlanta, August 1998-August 2000 (ARIES/SOPHIA studies). Epidemiology 12(4):S54.
174. Tonne, C. S. M., Mittleman, M., Coull, B., Goldberg, R., and Schwartz, J. 2007. A case-control analysis of exposure to traffic and acute myocardial infarction. Environ. Health Perspect. 115:53-57.
175. Topping, D., Coe, H., McFiggans, G., Burgess, R., Allan, J., Alfarra, M. R., Bower, K., Choularton, T. W., Decesari, S., and Facchini, M. C. 2004. Aerosol chemical characteristics from sampling conducted on the Island of Jeju, Korea during ACE Asia. Atmos. Environ. 38(14):2111-2123.
176. Tsien, A., Diaz-Sanchez, D., Ma, J., and Saxon, A. 1997. The organic component of diesel exhaust particles and phenanthrene, a major polyaromatic hydrocarbon constituent, enhances IgE production by IgE-secreting EBV-transformed human B cells in vitro.Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 142(2):256-263.
177. Tsigaridis, K., and Kanakidou, M. 2003. Global modelling of secondary organic aerosol in the troposphere: A sensitivity analysis. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 3:1849-1869.
178. Turpin, B. J., Huntzicker, J. J., and Hering, S. V. 1994. Investigation of organic aerosol sampling artifacts in the Los Angeles Basin. Atmos. Environ. 28(19):3061-3071.
179. Turpin, B. J., Saxena, P., and Andrews, E. 2000. Measuring and simulating particulate organics in the atmosphere: Problems and prospects. Atmos. Environ. 34(18):2983-3013.
180. 10. Report No. EPA-454/R-99-022. Prepared by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/pmstg.html
181. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999a. Compendium of Methods for the determination of toxic organic compounds in ambient air, Method TO-11A: Determination of formaldehyde in ambient air using adsorbent cartridge followed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Cincinnati, OH: Center for Environmental Research Information, Office of Research and Development, U.S. EPA. http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/files/ambient/airtox/to-11ar.pdf
182. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999b. National air toxics program: The integrated urban strategy. Fed. Reg. 64(137):38706.
183. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999c. Toxic organic compounds in Ambient Air Compendium Method TO-15: Determination of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in air collected in specially-prepared canisters and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/files/ ambient/airtox/to-15r.pdf
184. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2000. Supplementary guidance for conducting health risk assessment of chemical mixtures. http://www.epa.gov/NCEA/ raf/pdfs/chem_mix/chem_mix_08_2001.pdf
185. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. Health assessment document for diesel engine exhaust. Washington, DC: National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development.
186. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004a. Air quality criteria for particulate matter, Vol. 1 and 2. Research Triangle Park, NC: US EPA, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development.
187. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004b. Six principal air pollutants. Air trends. U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Radiation. http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/2007/report/sixprincipalpollutants.pdf
188. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. 1999 National scale air toxics assessment. Technology Transfer Network, Office of Air and Radiation (online). http://www.epa_gov/ttn/atw/nata/
189. van Vaeck, L., van Cauwenberghe, K., and Janssens, J. 1984. The gas-particle distribution of organic aerosol constituents: measurements of the volatilisation artifact in Hi-Vol cascade impactor sampling. Atmos. Environ. 18:417-430.
190. Venkatachari, P., Hopke, P. K., Brune, W. H., Ren, X. R., Lesher, R., Mao, J. Q., and Mitchel, M. 2007. Characterization of wintertime reactive oxygen species concentrations in Flushing, NewYork. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 41(2):97-111.
191. Wang, G. H., Kawamura, K., Lee, S., Ho, K. F., and Cao, J. J. 2006a. Molecular, seasonal, and spatial distributions of organic aerosols from fourteen Chinese cities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40(15):4619-4625.
192. Wang, S. L., Chang, Y. C., Chao, H. R., Li, C. M., Li, L. A., Lin, L. Y., and Papke, O. 2006b. Body burdens of polychlorinated dibenzop-dioxins, dibenzofurans, and biphenyls and their relations to estrogen metabolism in pregnant women. Environ. Health Perspect. 114(5):740-745.
193. Watanabe, N., and Kurita, M. 2001. The masculinization of the fetus during pregnancy due to inhalation of diesel exhaust. Environ. Health Perspect. 109:111-119.
194. Watanabe, N., and Ohsawa, M. 2002. Elevated serum immunoglobulin E to Cryptomeria japonica pollen in rats exposed to diesel exhaust during fetal and neonatal periods. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 22:11.
195. Watanabe, N. 2005. Decreased number of sperms and sertoli cells in mature rats exposed to diesel exhaust as fetuses. Toxicol.Lett. 155:51-58.
196. Watson, J. G. 2002. Visibility: Science and regulation. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 52(6):628-713.
197. Watson, J. G., Chen, L.-W. A., Chow, J. C., Lowenthal, D. H., and Doraiswamy, P. 2008. Source apportionment: Findings from the U.S. Supersite Program. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 58(2):265-288.
198. 2.5 episode at the Fresno, CA, supersite. Atmos. Environ. 36(3):465-475.
199. Watson, J. G., and Chow, J. C. 2002b. Comparison and evaluation of in-situ and filter carbon measurements at the Fresno Supersite. J. Geophys. Res., 107(D21):ICC 3-1-ICC 3-15.
200. Watson, J. G., Chow, J. C., and Chen, L.-W. A. 2005. Summary of organic and elemental carbon/black carbon analysis methods and intercomparisons. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 5(1):65-102.
201. Watson, J. G., Chow, J. C., Lowenthal, D. H., Pritchett, L. C., Frazier, C. A., Neuroth, G. R., and Robbins, R. 1994. Differences in the carbon composition of source profiles for diesel- and gasoline-powered vehicles. Atmos. Environ. 28(15):2493-2505.
202. Wellenius, G. A., Coull, B. A., Godleski, J. J., Koutrakis, P., Okabe, K., Savage, S. T., Lawrence, J. E., Murthy, G. G. K., and Verrier, R. L. 2003. Inhalation of concentrated ambient air particles exacerbates myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs. Environ. Health Perspect. 111(4):402-408.
203. Welthagen, W., Schnelle-Kreis, J., and Zimmermann, R. 2003. Search criteria and rules for comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of- flight mass spectrometry analysis of airborne particulate matter. J. Chromatogr. A 1019(1-2):233-249.
204. Wigle, D. T., Arbuckle, T. E., Walker, M., Wade, M. G., Liu, S. L., and Krewski, D. 2007. Environmental hazards: Evidence for effects on child health. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B 10(1-2):3-39.
205. Wilkins, C. K., Wolkoff, P., Clausen, P. A., Hammer, M., and Nielsen, G. D. 2003. Upper airway irritation of terpene/ozone oxidation products (TOPS). Dependence on reaction time, relative humidity and initial ozone concentration. Toxicol. Lett. 143(2):109-114.
206. Williams, B. J., Goldstein, A. H., Kreisberg, N. M., and Hering, S. V. 2006. An in-situ instrument for speciated organic composition of atmospheric aerosols: Thermal Desorption Aerosol GC/MS-FID (TAG). Aerosol Sci. Technol. 40(8):627-638.
207. Xiao, J. Z., Kondo, S., Yanagisawa, N., Miyaji, K., Enomoto, K., Sakoda, T., Iwatsuki, K., and Enomoto, T. 2007. Clinical efficacy of probiotic bifidobacterium longum for the treatment of symptoms of Japanese cedar pollen allergy in subjects evaluated in an environmental exposure unit. Allergol. Int. 56:67-75.
208. Yang, H., Li, Q. F., and Yu, J. Z. 2003. Comparison of two methods for the determination of water-soluble organic carbon in atmospheric particles. Atmos. Environ. 37(6):865-870.
209. Yang, H., Xu, J., Wu, W. S., Wan, C. H., and Yu, J. Z. 2004. Chemical characterization of water-soluble organic aerosols at Jeju Island collected during ACE-Asia. Environ. Chem. 1:13-17.
210. Yang, M. H., Park, M. S., and Lee, H. S. 2006. Endocrine disrupting chemicals: Human exposure and health risks. J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinogen. Ecotoxicol. Rev. 24(2):183-224.
211. Yue, Z. W., and Fraser, M. P. 2004. Characterization of nonpolar organic fine particulate matter in Houston, Texas. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 38(Suppl. 1):60-67.
212. 2.5) and fog waters from Northern California. Atmos. Environ. 37(16):2247-2258.
213. 2.5 in the southeastern United States using solvent-extractable organic compounds as tracers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36(11):2361-2371.
214. Zheng, M., Ke, L., Edgerton, E. S., Schauer, J. J., Dong, M. Y., and Russell, A. G. 2006. Spatial distribution of carbonaceous aerosol in the southeastern United States using molecular markers and carbon isotope data. J. Geophys. Res. 111(D10):D10S06.
215. Zhu, Y. F., Hinds, W. C., Kim, S., Shen, S., and Sioutas, C. 2002a. Study of ultrafine particles near a major highway with heavy-duty diesel traffic. Atmos. Environ. 36(27):4323-4335.
216. Zhu, Y. F., Hinds, W. C., Kim, S., and Sioutas, C. 2002b. Concentration and size distribution of ultrafine particles near a major highway. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 52(9):1032-1042.
217. Zhu, Y. F., Hinds, W. C., Shen, S., and Sioutas, C. 2004. Seasonal trends of concentration and size distribution of ultrafine particles near major highways in Los Angeles. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 38(Suppl. 1):5-13.
218. Zielinska, B., Sagebiel, J., Arnott, W. P., Rogers, C. F., Kelly, K. E., Wagner, D. A., Lighty, J. S., Sarofim, A. F., and Palmer, G. 2004. Phase and size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in diesel and gasoline vehicle emissions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38(9):2557-2567.