Critical review of techniques and methodologies for characterization of emulsion stability

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Volumn 47, Issue 7, 2007, Pages 611-649

  McClements, David Julian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS   (United States)

Author keywords

Analytical techniques; Coalescence; Emulsion stability; Flocculation; Methodologies; Particle size

Indexed keywords

CHEMISTRY; DRUG STABILITY; EMULSION; FLOCCULATION; FOOD ANALYSIS; FOOD INDUSTRY; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; METHODOLOGY; PARTICLE SIZE; REVIEW;

DRUG STABILITY; EMULSIONS; FLOCCULATION; FOOD ANALYSIS; FOOD INDUSTRY; PARTICLE SIZE;

EID: 35349018463     PISSN: 10408398     EISSN: 15497852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408390701289292     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. Aguilera, J.M., Stanley, D.W., and Barbosa-Cánovas, G.V. (1999). Microstructural Principles of Food Processing Engineering. Gaithersburg, Maryland: Aspen Puslishers.
2. Alexander, M. and Dalgleish, D.G. (2006). Dynamic light scattering techniques and their applications in food science. Food Biophysics, 1:2-13.
3. Allouche, J., Tyrode, E., Sadtler, V., Choplin, L., and Salager, J.L. (2004). Simultaneous conductivity and viscosity measurements as a technique to track emulsion, inversion by the phase-inversion-temperature method. Langmuir, 20:2134-2140.
4. Avendano-Gomez, J.R., Grossiord, J.L., and Clausse, D. (2005). Study of mass transfer in oil-water-oil multiple emulsions by differential scanning calorimetry. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 290:533-545.
5. Awad, T., Hamada, Y., and Sato, K. (2001). Effects of addition of diacylglycerols on fat crystallization in oil-in-water emulsion. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 103:735-74.1.
6. Awad, T. and Sato, K. (2001). Effects of hydrophobic emulsifier additives on crystallization, behavior of palm mid fraction in. oil-in-water emulsion. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 78:837-842.
7. Awad, T. and Sato, K. (2002). Acceleration of crystallisation of palm kernel oil in oil-in-water emulsion by hydrophobic emulsifier additives. Colloids and Surfaces B-Biointerfaces, 25:45-53.
8. Barnes, H.A. (1994). Rheology of Emulsions - a Review. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 91:89-95.
9. Basaran, T.K., Demetriades, K., and McClements, D.J. (1998). Ultrasonic imaging of gravitational separation in emulsions. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 136:169-181.
10. Binks, B.P. and Lumsdon, S.O. (2000). Transitional phase inversion of solid-stabilized emulsions using particle mixtures. Langmuir, 16:3748-3756.
11. Boode, K., Bisperink, C., and Walstra, P. (1991). Destabilization of O/W Emulsions Containing Fat Crystals by Temperature Cycling. Colloids and Surfaces, 61:55-74.
12. Boode, K. and Walstra, P. (1993a). Partial Coalescence in Oil-in-Water Emulsions . 1. Nature of the Aggregation. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 81:121-137.
13. Boode, K., Walstra, P., and Degrootmostert, A.E.A. (1993b). Partial Coalescence in Oil-in-Water Emulsions .2. Influence of the Properties of the Fat. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 81:139-151.
14. Bourne, M.C. (1997). Food Texture and Viscosity: Concept and Measurement. New York, NY: Academic Press.
15. Brooks, B.W., Richmond, H.N., and Zerfa, M. (1998). Phase inversion and drop formation in agitated liquid-liquid dispersions in the presence of non-ionic surfactants. In Binks (Ed.), Modern Aspects of Emulsion Science (pp. 175-204). Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
16. Brujic, J., Edwards, S.F., Grinev, D.V., Hopkinson, I., Brujic D., and Makse H.A. (2003). 3D bulk measurements of the force distribution in a compressed emulsion system. Faraday Discussions, 123:207-220.
17. Brujic, J., Edwards, S.F., Hopkinson, I., and Makse, H.A. (2003). Measuring the distribution of interdroplet forces in a compressed emulsion system. Physica a-Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications, 327:201-212.
18. Bury, M., Gerhards, J., Erni, W., and Stamm, A. (1995). Application of a New Method Based on Conductivity Measurements to Determine the Creaming Stability of O/W Emulsions. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 124:183-194.
19. Bushell, G.C., Yan, Y.D., Woodfield, D., Raper, J., and Amal, R. (2002). On techniques for the measurement of the mass fractal dimension of aggregates. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 95:1-50.
20. Campbell, I.J. (1989). The role of fat crystals in emulsion stability. In Bee, Richmond and Mingins (Ed.), Food Colloids (pp. 272). Cambridge, U.K.: Royal Society of Chemistry.
21. Garnie, S.L., Chan, D.Y.C., Lewis, C., Manica, R., and Dagastine, R.R. (2005). Measurement of dynamical forces between deformable drops using the atomic force microscope. I. Theory. Langmuir, 21:2912-2922.
22. Chanamai, R., Alba, F., and McClements, D.J. (2000a). Ultrasonic spectroscopy study of salad dressings. Journal of Food Science, 65:507-513.
23. Chanamai, R., Herrmann, N., and McClements, D.J. (1998a). The influence of flocculation on the ultrasonic properties of emulsions: experiment. Journal of Physics D-Applied Physics, 31:2956-2963.
24. Chanamai, R., Herrmann, N., and McClements, D.J. (1998b). Ultrasonic spectroscopy study of flocculation and shear-induced floc disruption in oil-in-water emulsions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 204:268-276.
25. Chanamai, R., Herrmann, N., and McClements, D.J. (1999). Influence of thermal overlap effects on the ultrasonic attenuation spectra of polydisperse oil-in-water emulsions. Langmuir, 15:3418-3423.
26. Chanamai, R. and McClements, D.J. (2000b). Creaming stability of flocculated monodisperse oil-in-water emulsions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 225:214-218.
27. Chanamai, R. and McClements, D.J. (2000c). Impact of weighting agents and sucrose on gravitational separation of beverage emulsions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48:5561-5565.
28. Chanamai, R. and McClements, D.J. (2000d). Dependence of creaming and rheology of monodisperse oil-in-water emulsions on droplet size and concentration. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 172:79-86.
29. Chantrapornchai, W., Clydesdale, F., and McClements, D.J. (1999). Theoretical and experimental study of spectral reflectance and color of concentrated oil-in-water emulsions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 218:324-330.
30. Chantrapornchai, W., Clydesdale, F.M., and McClements, D.J. (2000). Optical properties of oil-in-water emulsions containing titanium dioxide particles. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 166:123-131.
31. Chantrapornchai, W., Clydesdale, F.M., and McClements, D.J. (2001). Influence of flocculation on optical properties of emulsions. Journal of Food Science, 66:464-469.
32. Clausse, D., Gomez, F., Pezron, I., Komunjer, L., and Dalmazzone, C. (2005). Morphology characterization of emulsions by Differential Scanning Calorimetry. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 117:59-74.
33. Cui, S.W. (2005). Food Carbohydrates: Chemistry, Physical Properties and Applications. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis.
34. Dagastine, R.R., Chau, T.T., Chan, D.Y.C., Stevens, G. W., and Grieser, F. (2005). Interaction forces between oil-water particle interfaces - Non-DLVO forces. Faraday Discussions, 129:111-124.
35. Dagastine, R.R., Prieve, D.C., and White, L.R. (2004). Forces between a rigid probe particle and a liquid interface-III. Extraction of the planar half-space interaction energy E (D). Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 269:84-96.
36. Darling D.F. (1982). Recent Advances in the Destabilization of Dairy Emulsions. Journal of Dairy Research, 49:695-712.
37. Demetriades, K. and McClements, D.J. (1998). Influence of pH and heating on physicochemical properties of whey protein-stabilized emulsions containing a nonionic surfactant. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46:3936-3942.
38. Demetriades, K. and McClements, D.J. (1999). Ultrasonic attenuation spectroscopy study of flocculation in protein stabilized emulsions. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 150:45-54.
39. Deminiere, B., Colin A., Calderon, F.L., and Bibette, J. (1998). Lifetime and destruction of concentrated emulsions undergoing coalescence In Binks (Ed.), Modern Aspects of Emulsion Science (pp. 26.1-291). Cambridge, UK: Royal. Society of Chemistry.
40. Dickinson, E. (1992). An Introduction to Food Colloids. Oxford: Oxford Science Publishers.
41. Dickinson, E. (2003). Hydrocolloids at interfaces and the influence on the properties of dispersed systems. Food Hydrocolloids, 17:25-39.
42. Dickinson, E. (2007). Colloidal systems containing droplets and bubbles. In McClements (Ed.), Understanding and Controlling the Microstructure of Complex Foods (pp. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing
43. Dickinson, E. and Golding, M. (1998). Influence of alcohol on stability of oil-in-water emulsions containing sodium casemate. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 197:133-141.
44. Dickinson, E., Murray, B.S., and Stainsby, G. (1988). Coalescence stability of emulsion-sized droplets at a planar oil-water interface and the relationship to protein film surface rheology. Journal of the Chemical Society-Faraday Transactions 1, 84:871-883.
45. Dickinson, E., Owusu, R.K., and Williams, A. (1993). Orthokinetic destabilization of a protein-stabilized emulsion by a water-soluble surfactant. Journal of the Chemical Society-Faraday Transactions, 89:865-866.
46. Dickinson, E. and Williams, A. (1994). Orthokinetic Coalescence of Protein-Stabilized Emulsions. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 88:317-326.
47. Dimitrova, T.D. and Leal-Calderon, F. (1999). Forces between emulsion droplets stabilized with Tween 20 and proteins. Langmuir, 15:8813-8821.
48. Dimitrova, T.D., Leal-Calderon, F., Gurkov, T.D., and Campbell, B. (2001). Disjoining pressure vs thickness isotherms of thin emulsion films stabilized by proteins. Langmuir, 17:8069-8077.
49. Dimitrova, T.D., Leal-Calderon, F., Gurkov, T.D., and Campbell, B. (2004). Surface forces in. model oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by proteins. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 108-09:73-86.
50. Doublier, J.L., and Cuvelier, G. (2006). Gums and hydrocolloids: Functional aspects. In Eliasson (Ed.), Carbohydrates in Foods (pp. 273-304). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis.
51. Dufour, E., Mazerolles, G., Devaux, M.F., Duboz, G., Duployer, M.H., and Riou, M.N. (2000). Phase transition of triglycerides during semi-hard cheese ripening. International Dairy Journal, 10:81-93.
52. Eliasson, A.C. (2006). Carbohydrates in Foods. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis.
53. Elwell, M.W., Roberts, R.F., and Coupland, J.N. (2004). Effect of homogenization and surfactant type on the exchange of oil between emulsion droplets. Food Hydrocolloids, 18:413-418.
54. Friberg, S., Larsson, K., and Sjoblom J. (2004). Food Emulsions. New York: Marcel Dekker.
55. Gaonkar, A., and McPherson, A. (2006). Ingredient Interactions: Effects of Food Quality. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
56. Garti, N. (1997a). Progress in stabilization and transport phenomena of double emulsions in food applications. Food Science and Technology- Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft, and Technologie, 30:222-235.
57. Garti, N. (1997b). Double emulsions-Scope, limitations and new achievements. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 123:233-246.
58. Garti, N. and Bisperink, C. (1998). Double emulsions: progress and applications. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science, 3:657-667.
59. Goff, H.D. (1997a). Instability and partial coalescence in whippable dairy emulsions. Journal of Dairy Science, 80:2620-2630.
60. Goff, H.D. (1997b). Colloidal aspects of ice cream - A review. International Dairy Journal, 7:363-373.
61. Gu, Y.S., Decker, E.A., and McClements, D.J. (2005). Influence of pH and carrageenan type on properties of beta-lactoglobulin stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 19:83-91.
62. Gu, Y. X., Huang, Y.H., Liao, B., Cong, G.M., and Xu, M. (2000). Studies on the characterization of phase inversion during emulsification process and the particle sizes of water-borne microemulsion of poly(phenylene oxide) ionomer. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 76:690-694.
63. Gundersen, S.A., Saether, O., and Sjoblom, J. (2001). Salt effects on lignosulfonate and Kraft lignin stabilized O/W-emulsions studied by means of electrical conductivity and video-enhanced microscopy. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 186:141-153.
64. Gunning, A.P., Mackie, A.R., Wilde, P.J., and Morris, V.J. (2004). Atomic force microscopy of emulsion droplets: Probing droplet-droplet interactions. Langmuir, 20:116-122.
65. Guzey, D. and McClements, D.J. (2006). Influence of Environmental Stresses on O/W Emulsions Stabilized by β-Lactoglobulin-Pectin and β-Lactoglobulin-Pectin-Chitosan Membranes Produced by the Electrostatic Layer-by-Layer Deposition Technique. Food Biophysics, 1:30-40.
66. Hartel, R.W. (2001). Crystallization in Foods. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.
67. Horozov, T.S., and Binks, B.P. (2004). Stability of suspensions, emulsions, and foams studied by a novel automated analyzer. Langmuir, 20:9007-9013.
68. Hotrum, N.E., Stuart, M.A.C., van Vliet, T., Avino, S.F., and van Aken, G.A. (2005). Elucidating the relationship between the spreading coefficient, surface-mediated partial coalescence and the whipping time of artificial cream. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 260:71-78.
69. Hunter, R.J. (1986). Foundations of Colloid Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
70. Jarvis, P., Jefferson, B., Gregory, J., and Parsons, S.A. (2005a). A review of floc strength and breakage. Water Research, 39:3121-3137.
71. Jarvis, P., Jefferson, B., and Parsons, S.A. (2005b). Breakage, regrowth, and fractal mature of natural organic matter flocs. Environmental Science & Technology, 39:2307-2314.
72. Kabalnov, A. (1998). Coalescence in Emulsions. In Binks (Ed.), Modern Aspects of Emulsion Science (pp. 205-260). Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
73. Kabalnov, A. (2001). Ostwald ripening and related phenomena. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 22:1-12.
74. Kabalnov, A. and Weers, J. (1996). Kinetics of mass transfer in micellar systems: Surfactant adsorption, solubilization kinetics, and ripening. Langmuir, 12:3442-3448.
75. Kabalnov, A. S., Gervits, L. D., and Makarov, K.N. (1990). Ostwald Ripening in Emulsions of Fluorocarbons. Colloid Journal of the Ussr, 52:915-921.
76. Kim, H.J., Decker, E.A., and McClements, D.J. (2006). Preparation of multiple emulsions based on thermodynamic incompatibility of heat-denatured whey protein and pectin, solutions. Food Hydrocolloids, 20:586-595.
77. Larson, R.G. (1999). The Structure and Rheology of Complex Fluids. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
78. Liao, J.Y.H., Selomulya, C., Bushell, G., Bickert, G., and Amal, R. (2006). On different approaches to estimate the mass fractal dimension of coal aggregates. Particle, and Particle Systems Characterization, 22:299-309.
79. Lobo, L. (2000). Role of surfactants in emulsification: Coalescence vs. rupture. Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society, 219:U562-U562.
80. Lobo, L., Svereika, A., and Nair, M. (2002). Coalescence during emulsification - 1. Method development. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 253:409-418.
81. Loren, N., Langten, M., and Hermansson, A.M. (2007). Confocal fluorescence microscopy for structure characterization. In McClements (Ed.), Understanding and Controlling the Microstrutcture of Complex Foods (pp. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing
82. Macosko, C.W. (1994). Rheology: Principles, Measurements and Applications. New York, NY: VCH Publishers.
83. Marciani, L., Ramanathan, C., Tyler, D.J., Young, P., Manoj, P., Wickham, M., Fillery-Travis, A., Spiller, R.C., and Gowland P.A. (2001). Fat emulsification measured using NMR transverse relaxation. Journal of Magnetic Resonance, 153:1-6.
84. Marciani, L., Wickham, M., Hills, B.P., Wright, J., Bush, D., Faulks, R., Fillery-Travis, A., Spiller, R.C., and Gowland, P.A. (2004). Intragastric oil-in-water emulsion fat fraction measured using inversion recovery echo-planar magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Food Science, 69:E290-E296.
85. Marciani, L., Wickham, M., Wright, J., Bush, D., Faulks, R., Fillery-Travis, A., Gowland, P., and Spiller, R.C. (2003). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) insights into how fat emulsion stability alters gastric emptying. Gastroenterology, 124:A581-a581.
86. McClements, D.J. (2002a). Theoretical prediction of emulsion color. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 97:63-89.
87. McClements, D.J. (2002b). Colloidal basis of emulsion color. Current Opinion in Colloid, and Interface Science, 7:451-455.
88. McClements, D.J. (2005). Food Emulsions: Principles, Practice, and Techniques. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
89. McDonald, P.J., Ciampi, E., Keddie, J.L., Heidenreich, M., and Kimmich, R. (1999). Magnetic-resonance determination of the spatial dependence of the droplet size distribution in the cream layer of oil-in-water emulsions: Evidence for the effects of depletion flocculation. Physical Review E, 59:874-884.
90. Mellor, C.D., Sharp, M.A., Bain, C.D., and Ward, A.D. (2005). Probing interactions between colloidal particles with oscillating optical tweezers. Journal of Applied Physics, 97:103114.
91. Mengual, O., Meunier, G., Cayre, I., Puech, K., and Snabre, P. (1999a). TURBISCAN MA 2000: multiple light scattering measurement for concentrated emulsion and suspension, instability analysis. Talanta, 50:445-456.
92. Mengual, O., Meunier, G., Cayre, I., Puech, K., and Snabre, P. (1999b). Characterisation of instability of concentrated dispersions by a new optical analyser: the TURBISCAN MA 1000. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 152:111-123.
93. Mikula, R. J. (1992). Emulsion characterization. In Schramm (Ed.), Emulsions: Fundamentals and Applications in the Petroleum Industry (pp. Chapter 3). Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
94. Morris, V.J., Gunning, A.P., and Kirby, A.R. (1999). Atomic Force Microscopy for Biologists London, UK: Imperial College Press.
95. Murphy, D.B. (2001). Fundamentals of Light Microscopy and Electronic Imaging. New York, NY: John Wiley, and Sons.
96. Newling, B., Glover, P.M., Keddie, J.L., Lane, D.M., and McDonald, P.J. (1997). Concentration profiles in creaming oil-in-water emulsion layers determined with stray field magnetic resonance imaging. Langmuir, 13:3621-3626.
97. Norton, I..T. and Frith, W.J. (2001). Microstructure design in mixed biopolymer composites. Food Hydrocolloids, 15:543-553.
98. Norton, I.T., Frith, W.J., and Ablett, S. (2006). Fluid gels, mixed fluid gels and satiety. Food Hydrocolloids, 20:229-239.
99. Novales, B., Papineau, P., Sire, A., and Axelos, M.A.V. (2003). Characterization of emulsions and suspensions by video image analysis. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 221:81-89.
100. Ogawa, S., Decker, E. A., and McClements, D.J. (2003). Influence of environmental conditions on the stability of oil in water emulsions containing droplets stabilized by lecithin-chitosan membranes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51:5522-5527.
101. Pal, R. (1994). Techniques for measuring the composition (oil and water content) of emulsions - a state of the art review. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 84:141-160.
102. Pal, R., Yan, Y., and Masliyah, J. (1992). Rheology of Emulsions. Advances in Chemistry Series, 231:131-170.
103. Palanuwech, J. and Coupland, J.N. (2003a). Effect of surfactant type on the stability of oil-in-water emulsions to dispersed phase crystallization. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 223:251-262.
104. Palanuwech, J., Potineni, R., Roberts, R.F., and Coupland, J.N. (2003b). A method to determine free fat in emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 17:55-62.
105. Parker, A., Gunning, P.A., Ng, K., and Robins, M.M. (1995). How does xanthan stabilise salad dressing? Food Hydrocolloids, 9:333-342.
106. Pearce, K.N. and Kinsella, J.E. (1978). Emulsifying Properties of Proteins -Evaluation of a Turbidimetric Technique. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 26:716-723.
107. Pinfield, V.J., Dickinson, E., and Povey, M.J.W. (1994). Modeling of Concentration Profiles and Ultrasound Velocity Profiles in a Creaming Emulsion-Importance of Scattering Effects. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 166:363-374.
108. Pinfield, V.J., Dickson, E., and Povey, M.J.W. (1997). Modeling of combined creaming and flocculation in emulsions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 186:80-89.
109. Pinfield, V.J., Povey, M.J.W., and Dickinson, E. (1996). Interpretation of ultrasound velocity creaming profiles. Ultrasonics, 34:695-698.
110. Plucknett, K.P., Pomfret, S.J., Normand, V., Ferdinando, D., Veerman, C., Frith, W.J., and Norton, I.T. (2001). Dynamic experimentation on the confocal laser scanning microscope: application, to soft-solid, composite food materials. Journal of Microscopy-Oxford, 201:279-290.
111. Pomeranz, Y., and Meloan, C.E. (1994). Food Analysis. New York, NY: Chapman & Hall.
112. Potier, L., Raynal, S., Seiller, M., Grossiord, J.L., and Clausse, D. (1992). Study of State Transitions within Multiple W/O/W Emulsions Using Calorimetry (Dsc). Thermochimica Acta, 204:145-155.
113. Quemada, D. and Berli, C. (2002). Energy of interaction in colloids and its implications in. rheological modeling. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 98:51-85.
114. Rao, M.A. (1999). Rheology of Fluids and Semisolid Foods: Principles and Applications. New York: Springer.
115. Relkin, P. and Sourdet, S. (2005). Factors affecting fat droplet aggregation in whipped frozen protein-stabilized emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 19:503-511.
116. Relkin, P., Sourdet, S., and Fosseux, RY. (2003). Fat crystallization in complex food emulsions - Effects of adsorbed milk proteins and of a whipping process. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 71:187-195.
117. Robins, M.M., Watson, A.D., and Wilde, P.J. (2002). Emulsions-creaming and rheology. Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science, 7:419-425.
118. Rondon-Gonzalez, M., Sadtler, V., Choplin, L., and Salager, J.L. (2006). Emulsion inversion from abnormal to normal morphology by continuous stirring without internal phase addition-Effect of surfactant mixture fractionation at extreme water-oil ratio. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 288:151-157.
119. Rousseau, D. (2000). Fat crystals and emulsion stability - a review. Food Research International, 33:3-14.
120. Rousseau, D. (2006). On the porous mesostructure of milk chocolate viewed with atomic force microscopy. Lwt-Food Science and Technology, 39:852-860.
121. Rousseau, D. and Hodge, S.M. (2005). Stabilization of water-in-oil emulsions with continuous phase crystals. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 260:229-237.
122. Russ, J.C. (2004). Image Analysis of Food Microstructure. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
123. Salager, J.L., Forgiarini, A., Marquez, L., Pena, A., Pizzino, A., Rodriguez, M.P., and Rondo-Gonzalez, M. (2004). Using emulsion inversion in industrial processes. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 108-09:259-272.
124. Sato, K. (1999). Solidification and phase transformation behaviour of food fats -a review. Fett-Lipid, 101:467-474.
125. Schubert, H. and Engel, R. (2004). Product and formulation engineering of emulsions. Chemical Engineering Research & Design, 82:1137-1143.
126. Sherman, P. (1995). A Critique of some methods proposed for evaluating the emulsifying capacity and emulsion stabilizing performance of vegetable proteins. Italian Journal of Food Science, 7:3-10.
127. Simoneau, C., McCarthy, M.J., and German, J.B. (1993). Magnetic-resonance-imaging and spectroscopy for food systems. Food Research International, 26:387-398.
128. Stauffer, C.E. (1999). Emulsifiers. St Paul, MN: Eagen Press.
129. Tadros, T. (2004). Application of rheology for assessment and prediction of the long-term physical stability of emulsions. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 108-09:227-258.
130. Tadros, T.R (1994). Fundamental Principles of Emulsion Rheology and Their Applications. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 91:39-55.
131. Taisne, L. and Cabane, B. (1998). Emulsification and ripening following a temperature quench. Langmuir, 14:4744-4752.
132. Taisne, L., Walstra, P., and Cabane, B. (1996). Transfer of oil between emulsion droplets. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 184:378-390.
133. Tang, D.M. and Marangoni, A.G. (2006). Microstructure and fractal analysis of fat crystal networks. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 83:377-388.
134. Tcholakova, S., Denkov, N.D., Ivanov, I.B., and Campbell, B. (2002). Coalescence in beta-lactoglobulin-stabilized emulsions: Effects of protein adsorption and drop size. Langmuir, 18:8960-8971.
135. Tcholakova, S., Denkov, N.D., Sidzhakova, D., and Campbell, B. (2006). Effect of thermal, treatment, ionic strength, and pH on. the short-term and long-term coalescence stability of beta-lactoglobulin emulsions. Langmuir, 22:6042-6052.
136. Tcholakova, S., Denkov, N.D., Sidzhakova, D., Ivanov, I.B., and Campbell, B. (2003). Interrelation between drop size and protein adsorption at various emulsification conditions. Langmuir, 19:5640-5649.
137. Tcholakova, S., Denkov, N.D., Sidzhakova, D., Ivanov, I.B., and Campbell B. (2005). Effects of electrolyte concentration and pH on the coalescence stability of beta-lactoglobulin emulsions: Experiment and interpretation. Langmuir, 21:4842-4855.
138. Thanasukarn, P., Pongsawatmanit, R., and McClements, D.J. (2004). Influence of emulsifier type on freeze-thaw stability of hydrogenated palm oil-in-water emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 18:1033-1043.
139. Thivilliers, F., Drelon, N., Schmitt, V., and Leal-Calderon, F. (2006). Bicontinuous emulsion gels induced by partial coalescence: Kinetics and mechanism. Europhysics Letters, 76:332-338.
140. Tyrode, E., Allouche, J., Choplin, L., and Salager, J.L. (2005). Emulsion catastrophic inversion from abnormal to normal morphology. 4. Following the emulsion viscosity during three inversion protocols and extending the critical dispersed-phase concept. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 44:61-14.
141. Van Aken, G.A. (2001). Aeration of emulsions by whipping. Colloids and Surfaces a-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 190:333-354.
142. Van Aken, G.A. and van Vliet, T. (2002). Flow-induced coalescence in protein-stabilized highly concentrated emulsions: Role of shear-resisting connections between the droplets. Langmuir, 18:7364-7370.
143. Van der Linden, E., Sagis, L., and Venema, P. (2003). Rheo-optics and food systems. Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science, 8:349-358.
144. Vanapalli, S.A., and Coupland, J.N. (2001). Emulsions under shear-the formation and properties of partially coalesced lipid structures. Food Hydrocolloids, 15:507-512.
145. Velez, G., Fernandez, M.A., Munoz, J., Williams, P.A., and English, R.J. (2003). Role of hydrocolloids in the creaming of oil in water emulsions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51:265-269.
146. Walstra, P. (1993). Principles of emulsion formation. Chemical Engineering Science, 48:333.
147. Walstra, P. (2003). Physical Chemistry of Foods. New York, NY: Marcel Decker.
148. Weers, J.G. (1998). Ostwald ripening in emulsions. In Binks (Ed.), Modern Aspects of Emulsion Science (pp. 292-327). Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
149. Whitehurst, R.J. (2004). Emulsifiers in Food Technology. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Limited.
150. Yano, J. and Sato, K. (1999). FT-IR studies on polymorphism of fats: Molecular structures and interactions. Food Research International, 32:249-259.