Epigenetic remodelling of DNA in cancer

Histology and Histopathology

Volumn 22, Issue 10-12, 2007, Pages 1413-1424

  Lettini, A A ^a   Guidoboni, M ^a   Fonsatti, E ^a   Anzalone, L ^a   Cortini, E ^a   Maio, M ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF SIENA   (Italy)

^b CENTRO DI RIFERIMENTO ONCOLOGICO   (Italy)

Author keywords

5 aza 2 deoxycytidine; Cancer; Cancer testis antigens; DNA methylation

Indexed keywords

5 AZA 2' DEOXYCYTIDINE; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; ANTISENSE OLIGODEOXYNUCLEOTIDE; AZACITIDINE; CANCER TESTIS ANTIGEN; CARBOPLATIN; CISPLATIN; DNA; DNA HYPOMETHYLATING AGENT; DNA METHYLTRANSFERASE INHIBITOR; DOXORUBICIN; EPIRUBICIN; GEMCITABINE; HISTONE DEACETYLASE INHIBITOR; HLA ANTIGEN CLASS 1; HYDRALAZINE; INTERLEUKIN 2; MG 98; PROCAINAMIDE; SATELLITE DNA; TEMOZOLOMIDE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VALPROATE MAGNESIUM; VALPROIC ACID; TUMOR ANTIGEN;

ADJUVANT THERAPY; ADOPTIVE IMMUNOTHERAPY; ANTIGEN PRESENTATION; ANTIGEN RECOGNITION; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; APOPTOSIS; CANCER; CANCER PATIENT; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER THERAPY; CARCINOGENESIS; CELL CYCLE; CELL CYCLE REGULATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CPG ISLAND; CYTOTOXICITY; DNA METHYLATION; DNA REPAIR; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG TARGETING; EPIGENETICS; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GENE SEQUENCE; GENE SILENCING; GENETIC DISORDER; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; HUMAN; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOGENICITY; LEUKEMIA; LOW DRUG DOSE; MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROME; NONHUMAN; PROMOTER REGION; REVIEW; SEQUENCE ANALYSIS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; TRANSPOSON; TUMOR CELL; UPREGULATION; ANIMAL; CELL ADHESION; GENETIC EPIGENESIS; GENETICS; IMMUNOTHERAPY; METABOLISM; METHODOLOGY; NEOPLASM;

ANIMALS; ANTIGEN PRESENTATION; ANTIGENS, NEOPLASM; APOPTOSIS; CELL ADHESION; CPG ISLANDS; DNA; DNA METHYLATION; EPIGENESIS, GENETIC; HUMANS; IMMUNOTHERAPY; NEOPLASMS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 34748887189     PISSN: 02133911     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. Aggerholm A., Holm M.S., Guldberg P., Olesen L.H. and Hokland P. (2006). Promoter hypermethylation of p15INK4B, HIC1, CDH1, and ER is frequent in myelodysplastic syndrome and predicts poor prognosis in early-stage patients. Eur. J. Haematol. 76, 23-32.
2. Akcakanat A., Kanda T., Tanabe T., Komukai S., Yalima K., Nakagawa S., Ohashi M. and Hatakeyama K. (2006). Heterogeneous expression of GAGE, NY-ESO-1, MAGE-A and SSX proteins in esophageal cancer: Implications for immunotherapy. Int. J. Cancer 118, 123-128.
3. Attri J., Srinivasan R., Majumdar S., Radotra B.D. and Wig J. (2005). Alterations of tumor suppressor gene p16INK4a in pancreatic ductal carcinoma. BMC Gastroenterol. 5, 22-31.
4. Ayyoub M., Taub R.N., Keohan M.L., Hesdorffer M., Metthez G., Memeo L., Mansukhani M., Hibshoosh H., Hesdorffer C.S. and Valmori D. (2004). The frequent expression of cancer/testis antigens provides opportunities for immunotherapeutic targeting of sarcoma. Cancer Immun. 4, 7-19.
5. Bachman K.E., Herman J.G., Corn P.G., Merlo A., Costello J.F., Cavenee W.K., Baylin S.B. and Graff J.R. (1999). Methylation-associated silencing of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-3 gene suggest a suppressor role in kidney, brain, and other human cancers. Cancer Res. 59, 798-802.
6. Banks R.E., Tirukonda P., Taylor C., Hornigold N., Astuti D., Cohen D., Maher E.R., Stanley A.J., Harnden P., Joyce A., Knowles M. and Selby P.J. (2006). Genetic and epigenetic analysis of von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) gene alterations and relationship with clinical variables in sporadic renal cancer. Cancer Res. 66, 2000-2011.
7. Baumann S., Keller G., Puhringer F., Napieralski R., Feith M., Langer R., Hofler H., Stein H.J. and Sarbia M. (2006). The prognostic impact of O6-Methylguanine-DNA Methyltransferase (MGMT) promoter hypermethylation in esophageal adenocarcinoma. Int. J. Cancer 119, 264-268.
8. Baylin S.B. and Ohm J.E. (2006). Epigenetic gene silencing in cancer - a mechanism for early oncogenic pathway addiction? Nat. Rev. Cancer 6, 107-116.
9. Bird A. (2001). Molecular biology. Methylation talk between histones and DNA. Science 294, 2113-2115.
10. Bird A. (2002). DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory. Genes Dev. 16, 6-21.
11. Bolli M., Schultz-Thater E., Zajac P., Guller U., Feder C., Sanguedolce F., Carafa V., Terracciano L., Hudolin T., Spagnoli G.C. and Tornillo L. (2005). NY-ESO-1/LAGE-1 coexpression with MAGE-A cancer/testis antigens: a tissue microarray study. Int. J. Cancer 115, 960-966.
12. Browning M. and Dunnion D. (1997). HLA and cancer: implications for cancer immunotherapy and vaccination. Eur. J. Immunogenet. 24, 293-312.
13. Calabrò L., Fonsatti E., Altomonte M., Pezzani L., Colizzi F., Nanni P., Gattei V., Sigalotti L. and Maio M. (2005). Methylation-regulated expression of cancer testis antigens in primary effusion lymphoma: immunotherapeutic implications. J. Cell. Physiol. 202, 474-477.
14. Chavez-Blanco A., Pérez-Plasencia C., Pérez-Cárdenas E., Carrasco-Legleu C., Rangel-Lopez E., Segura-Pacheco B., Taja-Chayeb L., Trejo-Becerril C., Gonzalez-Fierro A., Candelaria M., Cabrera G. and Duenas-Gonzalez A. (2006). Antineoplastic effects of the DNA methylation inhibitor hydralazine and the histone deacetylase inhibitor valproic acid in cancer cell lines. Cancer Cell. Int. 6, 22-32.
15. Chen Y.T., Scanlan M.J., Sahin U., Tureci O., Gure A.O., Tsang S., Williamson B., Stockert E., Pfreundschuh M. and Old L.J. (1997). A testicular antigen aberrantly expressed in human cancers detected by autologous antibody screening. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 1914-1918.
16. Cheong J., Yamada Y., Yamashita R., Irie T., Kanai A., Wakaguri H., Nakai K., Ito T., Saito I., Sugano S. and Suzuki Y. (2006). Diverse DNA methylation statuses at alternative promoters of human genes in various tissues. DNA Res. 13, 155-167.
17. Chuang J.C., Yoo C.B., Kwan J.M., Li T.W., Liang G., Yang A.S. and Jones P.A. (2005). Comparison of biological effects of non-nucleoside DNA methylation inhibitors versus 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine. Mol. Cancer Ther. 4, 1515-1520.
18. Coral S., Sigalotti L., Gasparollo A., Cattarossi I., Visintin A., Cattelan A., Altomonte M. and Maio M. (1999). Prolonged upregulation of the expression of HLA class I antigens and costimulatory molecules on melanoma cells treated with 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine (5-AZA-CdR). J. Immunother. 22, 16-24.
19. Coral S., Sigalotti L., Altomonte M., Engelsberg A., Colizzi F., Cattarossi I., Maraskovsky E., Jager E., Seliger B. and Maio M. (2002). 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine-induced expression of functional cancer testis antigens in human renal cell carcinoma: immunotherapeutic implications. Clin. Cancer Res. 8, 2690-2695.
20. Coral S., Sigalotti L., Colizzi F., Spessotto A., Nardi G., Cortini E., Pezzani L., Fratta E., Fonsatti E., Di Giacomo AM., Nicotra M.R., Natali P.G., Altomonte M. and Maio M. (2006). Phenotypic and functional changes of human melanoma xenografts induced by DNA hypomethylation: immunotherapeutic implications. J. Cell. Physiol. 207, 58-66.
21. Coral S., Sigalotti L., Covre A., Nicolay H.J.M., Natali P.G. and Maio M. (2007). 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine in cancer immunotherapy: a mouse to man story. Cancer Res. (In press).
22. Costello J.F., Fruhwald M.C., Smiraglia D.J., Rush L.J., Robertson G.P., Gao X., Wright F.A., Feramisco J.D., Peltomaki P., Lang J.C., Schuller D.E., Yu L., Bloomfield C.D., Caligiuri M.A., Yates A., Nishikawa R., Su Huang H., Petrelli N.J., Zhang X., O'Dorisio M.S., Held W.A., Cavenee W.K. and Plass C. (2000). Aberrant CpG-island methylation has non-random and tumour-type-specific patterns. Nat. Genet. 24, 132-138.
23. Dammann R., Schagdarsurengin U., Seidel C., Strunnikova M., Rastetter M., Baier K. and Pteifer G.P. (2005). The tumor suppressor RASSF1A in human carcinogenesis: an update. Histol. Histopathol. 20, 645-663.
24. de Bruijn D.R., dos Santos N.R., Kater-Baats E., Thijssen J., van den Berk L., Stap J., Balemans M., Schepens M., Merkx G. and van Kessel AG. (2002). The cancer-related protein SSX2 interacts with the human homologue of a Ras-like GTPase interactor, RAB3IP, and a novel nuclear protein, SSX2IP. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 34, 285-298.
25. De Smet C., De Backer O., Faraoni I., Lurquin C., Brasseur F. and Boon T. (1996). The activation of human gene MAGE-1 in tumor cells is correlated with genome-wide demethylation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 7149-7153.
26. De Smet C., Loriot A. and Boon T. (2004). Promoter-dependent mechanism leading to selective hypomethylation within the 5′ region at gene MAGE-A1 in tumor cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 24, 4781-4790.
27. Esteller M. (2003). Relevance of DNA methylation in the management of cancer. Lancet Oncology 4, 351-358.
28. Esteller M., Silva J.M., Dominguez G., Bonilla F., Matias-Guiu X., Lerma E., Bussaglia E., Prat J., Harkes I.C., Repasky E.A., Gabrielson E., Schutte M., Baylin S.B. and Herman J.G. (2000). Promoter hypermethylation and BRCA1 inactivation in sporadic breast and ovarian tumors. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 92, 564-569.
29. Esteller M., Guo M., Moreno V., Peinado M.A., Capella G., Galm O., Baylin S.B. and Herman J.G. (2002). Hypermethylation-associated inactivation of the cellular retinol-binding-protein 1 gene in human cancer. Cancer Res. 62, 5902-5905.
30. Fang J.Y., Lu J., Chen Y.X. and Yang L. (2003). Effects of DNA methylation on expression of tumor suppressor genes and protooncogene in human colon cancer cell lines. World J. Gastroenterol. 9, 1976-1980.
31. Feinberg A.P. and Vogelstein B. (1983). Hypomethylation distinguishes genes of some human cancers from their normal counterparts. Nature 301, 89-92.
32. Feltus F.A., Lee E.K., Costello J.F., Plass C. and Vertino P.M. (2003). Predicting aberrant CpG island methylation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 100, 12253-12258.
33. Florl A.R., Lower R., Schmitz-Drager B.J. and Schulz W.A. (1999). DNA methylation and expression of LINE-1 and HERV-K provirus sequences in urothelial and renal cell carcinomas. Br. J. Cancer 80, 1312-1321.
34. Fonsatti E., Sigalotti L., Coral S., Colizzi F., Altomonte M. and Maio M. (2003). Methylation-regulated expression of HLA class I antigens in melanoma. Int. J. Cancer 105, 430-431.
35. Fujii H., Biel M.A., Zhou W., Weitzman S.A., Baylin S.B. and Gabrielson E. (1998). Methylation of the HIC-1 candidate tumor suppressor gene in human breast cancer. Oncogene 16, 2159-2164.
36. Fulii S., Tominaga K., Kitajima K., Takeda J., Kusaka T., Fujita M., Ichikawa K., Tomita S., Ohkura Y., Ono Y., Imura J., Chiba T. and Fujimori T. (2005). Methylation of the oestrogen receptor gene in non-neoplastic epithelium as a marker of colorectal neoplasia risk in longstanding and extensive ulcerative colitis. Gut 54, 1287-1292.
37. Fuks F., Hurd P.J., Wolf D., Nan X., Bird A.P. and Kouzarides T. (2003). The methyl-CpG-binding protein MeCP2 links DNA methylation to histone methylation. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 4035-4040.
38. Fukushima T., Katayama Y., Watanabe T., Yoshino A., Ogino A., Ohta T. and Komine C. (2005). Promoter hypermethylation of mismatch repair gene hMLH1 predicts the clinical response of malignant astrocytomas to nitrosourea. Clin. Cancer Res. 11, 1539-1544.
39. Furukawa Y., Sutheesophon K., Wada T., Nishimura M., Saito Y., Ishii H. and Furukawa Y. (2005). Methylation silencing of the Apaf-1 gene in acute leukemia. Mol. Cancer Res. 3, 325-334.
40. Gao X., Sedgwick T., Shi Y.B. and Evans T. (1998). Distinct functions are implicated for the GATA-4, -5, and -6 transcription factors in the regulation of intestine epithelial cell differentiation. Mol. Cell Biol. 18, 2901 -2911.
41. Garcia-Lora A., Martinez M., Algarra I., Gaforio J.J. and Garrido F. (2003). MHC class I-deficient metastatic tumor variants immunoselected by T lymphocytes originate from the coordinated downregulation of APM components. Int. J. Cancer 106, 521-527.
42. Gaudet F., Hodgson J.G., Eden A., Jackson-Grusby L., Dausman J., Gray J.W., Leonhardt H. and Jaenisch R. (2003). Induction of tumors in mice by genomic hypomethylation. Science 18, 489-492.
43. Gollob J.A., Sciambi C.J., Peterson B.L., Richmond T., Thoreson M., Moran K., Dressman H.K., Jelinek J. and Issa J.P. (2006). Phase I trial of sequential low-dose 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine plus high-dose intravenous bolus interleukin-2 in patients with melanoma or renal cell carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 12, 4619-4627.
44. Goydos J.S., Patel M. and Shih W. (2001). NY-ESO-1 and CTp11 expression may correlate with stage of progression in melanoma. J. Surg. Res. 98, 76-80.
45. Gras E., Catasus L., Arguelles R., Moreno-Bueno G., Palacios J., Gamallo C., Matias-Guiu X. and Prat J. (2001). Microsatellite instability, MLH-1 promoter hypermethylation, and frameshift mutations at coding mononucleotide repeat microsatellites in ovarian tumors. Cancer 92, 2829-2836.
46. Guo Z.S., Hong J.A., Irvine K.R., Chen G.A., Spiess P.J., Liu Y., Zeng G., Wunderlich J.R., Nguyen D.M., Restifo N.P. and Schrump D.S. (2006). De novo induction of a cancer/testis antigen by 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine augments adoptive immunotherapy in a murine tumor model. Cancer Res. 66, 1105-1113.
47. Hellebrekers D.M., Castermans K., Vire E., Dings R.P., Hoebers N.T., Mayo K.H., Oude Egbrink M.G., Molema G., Fuks F., van Engeland M. and Griffioen A.W. (2006). Epigenetic regulation of tumor endothelial cell anergy: silencing of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 by histone modifications. Cancer Res. 66, 10770-10777.
48. Hellebrekers D.M., Griffioen A.W. and van Engeland M. (2007). Dual targeting of epigenetic therapy in cancer. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1775, 76-91.
49. Hesslein D.G., Fields P.E. and Schatz D.G. (2001). Location, location, location: the cell biology of immunoglobulin allelic control. Nat. Immunol. 2, 825-826.
50. Hiltunen M.O., Alhonen L., Koistinaho J., Myohanen S., Paakkonen M., Marin S., Kosma V.M. and Janne J. (1997). Hypermethylation of the APC (adenomatous polyposis coli) gene promoter region in human colorectal carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer 70, 644-648.
51. Holling T.M., Schooten E., Langerak A.W. and van den Elsen P.J. (2004). Regulation of MHC class II expression in human T-cell malignancies. Blood 103, 1438-1444.
52. Hsu H.S., Wang Y.C., Tseng R.C., Chang J.W., Chen J.T., Shih C.M., Chen C.Y. and Wang Y.C. (2004). 5′ cytosine-phospho-guanine island methylation is responsible for p14ARF inactivation and inversely correlates with p53 overexpression in resected non-small cell lung cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 10, 4734-4741.
53. Issa J.P., Garcia-Manero G., Giles F.J., Mannari R., Thomas D., Faderl S., Bayar E., Lyons J., Rosenfeld C.S., Cortes J. and Kantarjian H.M. (2004). Phase 1 study of low-dose prolonged exposure schedules of the hypomethylating agent 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine (decitabine) in hematopoietic malignancies. Blood 103, 1635-1640.
54. Jones P.A. and Taylor S.M. (1980). Cellular differentiation, cytidine analogs and DNA methylation. Cell 20, 85-93.
55. Juttermann R., Li E. and Jaenisch R. (1994). Toxicity of 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine to mammalian cells is mediated primarily by covalent trapping of DNA methyltransferase rather than DNA demethylation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 11797-11801.
56. Kim M.S., Blake M., Baek J.H., Kohlhagen G., Pommier Y. and Carrier F. (2003). Inhibition of histone deacetylase increases cytotoxicity to anticancer drugs targeting DNA. Cancer Res. 63, 7291-7300.
57. Kuraya M., Minarovits J., Okada H. and Klein E. (1993). HRF20/CD59 complement regulatory protein expression is phenotype-dependent and inducible by the hypomethylating agent 5-azacytidine on Burkitt's lymphoma cell lines. Immunol. Lett. 37, 35-39.
58. Kuwako K., Taniura H. and Yoshikawa K. (2004). Necdin-related MAGE proteins differentially interact with the E2F1 transcription factor and the p75 neurotrophin receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 279, 1703-1712.
59. Laird P.W. (2005). Cancer epigenetics. Hum. Mol. Genet. 14, R65-R76.
60. Lee B.H., Yegnasubramanian S., Lin X. and Nelson W.G. (2005). Procainamide is a specific inhibitor of DNA methyltransferase 1. J. Biol. Chem. 280, 40749-40756.
61. Lee P.P., Fitzpatrick D.R., Beard C., Jessup H.K., Lehar S., Makar K.W., Perez-Melgosa M., Sweetser M.T., Schlissel M.S., Nguyen S., Cherry S.R., Tsai J.H., Tucker S.M., Weaver W.M., Kelso A., Jaenisch R. and Wilson C.B. (2001). A critical role for Dnmt1 and DNA methylation in T cell development, function, and survival. Immunity 15, 763-774.
62. Li M., Yuan Y.H., Han Y., Liu Y.X., Yan L., Wang Y. and Gu J. (2005a). Expression profile of cancer-testis genes in 121 human colorectal cancer tissue and adjacent normal tissue. Clin. Cancer Res. 11, 1809-1814.
63. Li R., Saito T., Tanaka R., Satohisa S., Adachi K., Horie M., Akashi Y. and Kudo R. (2005b). Hypermethylation in promoter region of retinoic acid receptor-beta gene and immunohistochemical findings on retinoic acid receptors in carcinogenesis of endometrium. Cancer Left. 219, 33-40.
64. Malone C.S., Miner M.D., Doerr J.R., Jackson J.P., Jacobsen S.E., Wall R. and Teitell M. (2001). CmC (A/T)GG DNA methylation in mature B cell lymphoma gene silencing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 10404-10409.
65. Monte M., Simonatto M., Peche L.Y., Bublik D.R., Gobessi S., Pierotti M.A., Rodolfo M. and Schneider C. (2006). MAGE-A tumor antigens target p53 transactivation function through histone deacetylase recruitment and confer resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103, 11160-11165.
66. Morris A.C., Spangler W.E. and Boss J.M. (2000). Methylation of class II trans-activator promoter IV: a novel mechanism of MHC class II gene control. J. Immunol. 164, 4143-4149.
67. Neumeister P., Albanese C., Balent B., Greally J. and Pestell R.G. (2002). Senescence and epigenetic dysregulation in cancer. Int. J. Biochem. Cell. Biol. 34, 1475-1490.
68. Nie Y., Yang G., Song Y., Zhao X., So C., Liao J., Wang L.D. and Yang C.S. (2001). DNA hypermethylation is a mechanism for loss of expression of the HLA class I genes in human esophageal squamous cell carcinomas. Carcinogenesis 22, 1615-1623.
69. Novik K.L., Nimmrich I., Genc B., Maier S., Piepenbrock C., Olek A. and Beck S. (2002). Epigenomics: genome-wide study of methylation phenomena. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 4, 111-128.
70. Novina C.D. and Sharp P.A. (2004). The RNAi revolution. Nature 430, 161-164.
71. Odunsi K., Jungbluth A.A., Stockert E., Qian F., Gnjatic S., Tammela J., Intengan M., Beck A., Keitz B., Santiago D., Williamson B., Scanlan M.J., Ritter G., Chen Y.T., Driscoll D., Sood A., Lele S. and Old L.J. (2003). NY-ESO-1 and LAGE-1 cancer-testis antigens are potential targets for immunotherapy in epithelial ovarian cancer. Cancer Res. 63, 6076-6083.
72. Ono T., Kurashige T., Harada N., Noguchi Y., Saika T., Niikawa N., Aoe M., Nakamura S., Higashi T., Hiraki A., Wada H., Kumon H., Old L.J. and Nakayama E. (2001). Identification of proacrosin binding protein sp32 precursor as a human cancer/testis antigen. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 3282-3287.
73. Perez-Plasencia C. and Duenas-Gonzalez A. (2006). Can the state of cancer chemotherapy resistance be reverted by epigenetic therapy? Mol. Cancer 5, 27-31.
74. Peruzzi B., Athauda G. and Bottaro D.P. (2006). The von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor gene product represses oncogenic beta-catenin signaling in renal carcinoma cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103, 14531-14536.
75. Plumb J.A., Strathdee G., Sludden J., Kaye S.B. and Brown R. (2000). Reversal of drug resistance in human tumor xenografts by 2′-deoxy-5-azacytidine-induced demethylation of the hMLH1 gene promoter. Cancer Res. 60, 6039-6044.
76. Qiu Y.Y., Mirkin B.L. and Dwivedi R.S. (2005). Inhibition of DNA methyltransferase reverses cisplatin induced drug resistance in murine neuroblastoma cells. Cancer Detect. Prev. 29, 456-463.
77. Reddy A.N., Jiang W.W., Kim M., Benoit N., Taylor R., Clinger J., Sidransky D. and Califano J.A. (2003). Death-associated protein kinase promoter hypermethylation in normal human lymphocytes. Cancer Res. 63, 7694-7698.
78. Roeder C., Schuler-Thurner B., Berchtold S., Vieth G., Driesch P., Schuler G. and Luftl M. (2005). MAGE-A3 is a frequent tumor antigen of metastasized melanoma. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 296, 314-319.
79. Sahin U., Tureci O., Chen Y.T., Seitz G., Villena-Heinsen C., Old L.J. and Pfreundschuh M. (1998). Expression of multiple cancer/testis (CT) antigens in breast cancer and melanoma: basis for polyvalent CT vaccine strategies. Int. J. Cancer 78, 387-389.
80. Sahin U., Koslowski M., Tureci O., Eberle T., Zwick C., Romeike B., Moringlane J.R., Schwechheimer K., Feiden W. and Pfreundschuh M. (2000). Expression of cancer testis genes in human brain tumors. Clin. Cancer Res. 6, 3916-3922.
81. Scanlan M.J., Gure A.O., Jungbluth A.A., Old L.J. and Chen Y.T. (2002). Cancer/testis antigens: an expanding family of targets for cancer immunotherapy. Immunol. Rev. 188, 22-32.
82. Schrump D.S., Fischette M.R., Nguyen D.M., Zhao M., Li X., Kunst T.F., Hancox A., Hong J.A., Chen G.A., Pishchik V., Figg W.D., Murgo A.J. and Steinberg S.M. (2006). Phase I study of decitabine-mediated gene expression in patients with cancers involving the lungs, esophagus, or pleura. Clin. Cancer Res. 12, 5777-5785.
83. Segura-Pacheco B., Perez-Cardenas E., Taja-Chayeb L., Chavez-Blanco A., Revilla-Vazquez A., Benitez-Bribiesca L. and Duenas-Gonzalez A. (2006). Global DNA hypermethylation-associated cancer chemotherapy resistance and its reversion with the demethylating agent hydralazine. J. Transl. Med. 4, 32-44.
84. Sigalotti L., Coral S., Nardi G., Spessotto A., Cortini E., Cattarossi I., Colizzi F., Altomonte M. and Maio M. (2002a). Promoter methylation controls the expression of MAGE2, 3 and 4 genes in human cutaneous melanoma. J. Immunother. 25, 16-26.
85. Sigalotti L., Coral S., Altomonte M., Natali L., Gaudino G., Cacciotti P., Libener R., Colizzi F., Vianale G., Martini F., Tognon M., Jungbluth A., Cebon J., Maraskovsky E., Mutti L. and Maio M. (2002b). Cancer testis antigens expression in mesothelioma: role of DNA methylation and bioimmunotherapeutic implications. Br. J. Cancer 86, 979-982.
86. Sigalotti L., Altomonte M., Colizzi F., Degan M., Rupolo M., Zagonel V., Pinto A., Gattei V. and Maio M. (2003). 5-Aza-2′-deoxycytidine (decitabine) treatment of hematopoietic malignancies: a multimechanism therapeutic approach? Blood 101, 4644-4646.
87. Sigalotti L., Fratta E., Coral S., Tanzarella S., Danielli R., Colizzi F., Fonsatti E., Traversari C., Altomonte M. and Maio M. (2004). Intratumor heterogeneity of cancer/testis antigens expression in human cutaneous melanoma is methylation-regulated and functionally reverted by 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine. Cancer Res. 64, 9167-9171.
88. Sigalotti L, Coral S., Fratta E., Lamaj E., Danielli R., Di Giacomo A.M., Altomonte M. and Maio M. (2005). Epigenetic modulation of solid tumors as a novel approach for cancer immunotherapy. Semin. Oncol. 32, 473-478.
89. Sonnemann J., Kumar K.S., Heesch S., Muller C., Hartwig C., Maass M., Bader P. and Beck J.F. (2006). Histone deacetylase inhibitors induce cell death and enhance the susceptibility to ionizing radiation, etoposide, and TRAIL in medulloblastoma cells. Int. J. Oncol. 28, 755-766.
90. Suzuki H., Watkins D.N., Jair K.W., Schuebel K.E., Markowitz S.D., Chen W.D., Pretlow T.P., Yang B., Akiyama Y., Van Engeland M., Toyota M., Tokino T., Hinoda Y., Imai K., Herman J.G. and Baylin S.B. (2004). Epigenetic inactivation of SFRP genes allows constitutive WNT signaling in colorectal cancer. Nat. Genet. 36, 417-422.
91. Tajima K., Obata Y., Tamaki H., Yoshida M., Chen Y.T., Scanlan M.J., Old L.J., Kuwano H., Takahashi T., Takahashi T. and Mitsudomi T. (2003). Expression of cancer/testis (CT) antigens in lung cancer. Lung Cancer 42, 23-33.
92. Takaki M., Nakayama S., Misawa H., Nakagawa T. and Kuniyasu H. (2006). In vitro formation of enteric neural network structure in a gut-like organ differentiated from mouse embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells 24, 1414-1422.
93. Tew K.D. and Ronai Z. (1999). GST function in drug and stress response. Drug Resist. Updat. 2, 143-147.
94. Thornburg B.G., Gotea V. and Makalowski W. (2006). Transposable elements as a significant source of transcription regulating signals. Gene 365, 104-110.
95. Tureci O., Sahin U., Zwick C., Koslowski M., Seitz G. and Pfreundschuh M. (1998). Identification of a meiosis-specific protein as a member of the class of cancer/testis antigens. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 5211-5216.
96. van der Bruggen P., Bastin J., Gajewski T., Coulie P.G., Boel P., De Smet C., Traversari C., Townsend A. and Boon T. (1994). A peptide encoded by human gene MAGE-3 and presented by HLA-A2 induces cytolytic T lymphocytes that recognize tumor cells expressing MAGE-3. Eur. J. Immunol. 24, 3038-3043.
97. Wethkamp N., Ramp U., Geddert H., Schulz W.A., Florl A.R., Suschek C.V., Hassan M., Gabbert H.E. and Mahotka C. (2006). Expression of death-associated protein kinase during tumour progression of human renal cell carcinomas: hypermethylation-independent mechanisms of inactivation. Eur. J. Cancer 42, 264-274.
98. Wijermans P., Lubbert M., Verhoef G., Bosly A., Ravoet C., Andre M. and Ferrant A. (2000). Low-dose 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine, a DNA hypomethylating agent, for the treatment of high-risk myelodysplastic syndrome: a multicenter phase II study in elderly patients. J. Clin. Oncol. 18, 956-962.
99. Wischnewski F., Pantel K. and Schwarzenbach H. (2006). Promoter Demethylation and Histone Acetylation Mediate Gene Expression of MAGE-A1, -A2, -A3, and -A12 in Human Cancer Cells. Mol. Cancer Res. 4, 339-349.
100. Wong D.J., Foster S.A., Galloway D.A. and Reid B.J. (1999). Progressive region-specific de novo methylation of the p16 CpG island in primary human mammary epithelial cell strains during escape from M(0) growth arrest. Mol. Cell Biol. 19, 5642-5651.
101. Wright K.L. and Ting J.P. (2006). Epigenetic regulation of MHC-II and CIITA genes. Trends Immunol. 27, 405-412.
102. Wu L.Q., Lu Y., Wang X.F., Lv Z.H., Zhang B. and Yang J.Y. (2006). Expression of cancer-testis antigen (CTA) in tumor tissues and peripheral blood of Chinese patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Life Sci. 79, 744-748.
103. Yang A.S., Doshi K.D., Choi S.W., Mason J.B., Mannari R.K., Gharybian V., Luna R., Rashid A., Shen L., Estecio M.R., Kantarjian H.M., Garcia-Manero G. and Issa J.P. (2006). DNA methylation changes after 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine therapy in patients with leukemia. Cancer Res. 66, 5495-5503.
104. Ye C., Shrubsole M.J., Cai Q., Ness R., Grady W.M., Smalley W., Cai H., Washington K. and Zheng W. (2006). Promoter methylation status of the MGMT, hMLH1, and CDKN2A/p16 genes in non-neoplastic mucosa of patients with and without colorectal adenomas. Oncol. Rep. 16, 429-435.
105. Yoshiura K., Kanai Y., Ochiai A., Shimoyama Y., Sugimura T. and Hirohashi S. (1995). Silencing of the E-cadherin invasion-suppressor gene by CpG methylation in human carcinomas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 7416-7419.