Review article: Vascular and metabolic effects of sex steroids: New insights into clinical trials

Reproductive Sciences

Volumn 14, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 300-314

  Wierman, Margaret E ^a   Kohrt, Wendy M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

Metabolic effects of sex hormones; Sex hormone action; Vascular actions of estrogen

Indexed keywords

CONJUGATED ESTROGEN; ESTROGEN; GESTAGEN; MEDROXYPROGESTERONE; SEX HORMONE;

BODY COMPOSITION; BODY FAT DISTRIBUTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIABETES MELLITUS; DNA BINDING; DNA POLYMORPHISM; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG TOLERABILITY; ESTROGEN DEFICIENCY; GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; HORMONAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HYPERCOAGULABILITY; LIPID METABOLISM; POSTMENOPAUSE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM; BLOOD CLOTTING; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; PHYSIOLOGY; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; VASODILATATION;

BLOOD COAGULATION; BLOOD COAGULATION DISORDERS; CLINICAL TRIALS; ESTROGENS; ESTROGENS, CONJUGATED (USP); GONADAL STEROID HORMONES; HUMANS; MEDROXYPROGESTERONE; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; VASODILATION;

EID: 34648825562     PISSN: 19337191     EISSN: 19337205     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1933719107303673     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002 ; 288: 321-333.
2. Anderson GL, Limacher M., Assaf AR, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004 ; 291: 1701-1712.
3. Prentice RL, Pettinger M., Anderson GL Statistical issues arising in the Women's Health Initiative. Biometrics. 2005 ; 61: 899-911.
4. Prentice RL, Langer RD, Stefanick ML, et al. Combined analysis of Women's Health Initiative observational and clinical trial data on postmenopausal hormone treatment and cardiovascular disease. Am J Epidemiol. 2006 ; 163: 589-599.
5. Aubuchon M., Santoro N. Lessons learned from the WHI: HRT requires a cautious and individualized approach. Geriatrics. 2004 ; 59: 22-26.
6. Grodstein F., Clarkson TB, Manson JE Understanding the divergent data on postmenopausal hormone therapy. N Engl J Med. 2003 ; 348: 645-650.
7. Hsia J., Langer RD, Manson JE, et al. Conjugated equine estrogens and coronary heart disease: the Women's Health Initiative. Arch Intern Med. 2006 ; 166: 357-365.
8. Ostrzenski A., Ostrzenska KM WHI clinical trial revisit: imprecise scientific methodology disqualifies the study's outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005 ; 193: 1599-1604.
9. Hulley SB, Grady D. The WHI estrogen-alone trial-do things look any better? JAMA. 2004 ; 291: 1769-1771.
10. Powledge TM NIH terminates WHI oestrogen-only study. Lancet. 2004 ; 363: 870.
11. Twombly R. Negative Women's Health Initiative findings stir consternation, debate among researchers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006 ; 98: 508-510.
12. Clark JH A critique of Women's Health Initiative studies (2002-2006). Nucl Recept Signal. 2006 ; 4: e023.
13. Cato AC, Nestl A., Mink S. Rapid actions of steroid receptors in cellular signaling pathways. Sci STKE. 2002 ;(138). RE9
14. Kushner PJ, Agard DA, Greene GL, et al. Estrogen receptor pathways to AP-1. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2000 ; 74: 311-317.
15. Lonard DM, O'Malley BW The expanding cosmos of nuclear receptor coactivators. Cell. 2006 ; 125: 411-414.
16. Hu X., Lazar MA Transcriptional repression by nuclear hormone receptors. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2000 ; 11: 6-10.
17. Wu RC, Qin J., Yi P., et al. Selective phosphorylations of the SRC-3/AIB1 coactivator integrate genomic reponses to multiple cellular signaling pathways. Mol Cell. 2004 ; 15: 937-949.
18. Muller JM, Isele U., Metzger E., et al. FHL2, a novel tissue-specific coactivator of the androgen receptor. EMBO J. 2000 ; 19: 359-369.
19. Yuan Y., Liao L., Tulis DA, Xu J. Steroid receptor coactivator-3 is required for inhibition of neointima formation by estrogen. Circulation. 2002 ; 105: 2653-2659.
20. Herrington DM, Howard TD, Hawkins GA, et al. Estrogen-receptor polymorphisms and effects of estrogen replacement on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in women with coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2002 ; 346: 967-974.
21. Yaffe K., Lui LY, Grady D., Stone K., Morin P. Estrogen receptor 1 polymorphisms and risk of cognitive impairment in older women. Biol Psychiatry. 2002 ; 51: 677-682.
22. Carroll JS, Liu XS, Brodsky AS, et al. Chromosome-wide mapping of estrogen receptor binding reveals long-range regulation requiring the forkhead protein FoxA1. Cell. 2005 ; 122: 33-43.
23. Bjornstrom L., Sjoberg M. Mechanisms of estrogen receptor signaling: convergence of genomic and nongenomic actions on target genes. Mol Endocrinol. 2005 ; 19: 833-842.
24. Levin ER Integration of the extranuclear and nuclear actions of estrogen. Mol Endocrinol. 2005 ; 19: 1951-1959.
25. Simoncini T., Scorticati C., Mannella P., et al. Estrogen receptor alpha interacts with Galpha13 to drive actin remodeling and endothelial cell migration via the RhoA/Rho kinase/moesin pathway. Mol Endocrinol. 2006 ; 20: 1756-1771.
26. Pare G., Krust A., Karas RH, et al. Estrogen receptor-alpha mediates the protective effects of estrogen against vascular injury. Circ Res. 2002 ; 90: 1087-1092.
27. D'Eon TM, Souza SC, Aronovitz M., Obin MS, Fried SK, Greenberg AS Estrogen regulation of adiposity and fuel partitioning. Evidence of genomic and non-genomic regulation of lipogenic and oxidative pathways. J Biol Chem. 2005 ; 280: 35983-35991.
28. Misso ML, Murata Y., Boon WC, Jones ME, Britt KL, Simpson ER Cellular and molecular characterization of the adipose phenotype of the aromatase-deficient mouse. Endocrinology. 2003 ; 144: 1474-1480.
29. Bulun SE, Sebastian S., Takayama K., Suzuki T., Sasano H., Shozu M. The human CYP19 (aromatase P450) gene: update on physiologic roles and genomic organization of promoters. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2003 ; 86: 219-224.
30. Barrett-Connor E. Hormones and heart disease in women: where are we in 2005? Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2006 ; 8: 85-87.
31. Koh KK, Mincemoyer R., Bui MN, et al. Effects of hormone-replacement therapy on fibrinolysis in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 1997 ; 336: 683-690.
32. Lobo RA, Bush T., Carr BR, Pickar JH Effects of lower doses of conjugated equine estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate on plasma lipids and lipoproteins, coagulation factors, and carbohydrate metabolism. Fertil Steril. 2001 ; 76: 13-24.
33. Ettinger B. Vasomotor symptom relief versus unwanted effects: role of estrogen dosage. Am J Med. 2005 ; 118: 74-78.
34. Walsh BW, Schiff I., Rosner B., Greenberg L., Ravnikar V., Sacks FM Effects of postmenopausal estrogen replacement on the concentrations and metabolism of plasma lipoproteins. N Engl J Med. 1991 ; 325: 1196-1204.
35. Koh KK, Jin DK, Y ang SH. et al. Vascular effects of synthetic or natural progestagen combined with conjugated equine estrogen in healthy postmenopausal women. Circulation. 2001 ; 103: 1961-1966.
36. Sack MN, Rader DJ, Cannon RO III. Oestrogen and inhibition of oxidation of low-density lipoproteins in postmenopausal women. Lancet. 1994 ; 343: 269-270.
37. Manson JE, Martin KA Clinical practice: postmenopausal hormone-replacement therapy. N Engl J Med. 2001 ; 345: 34-40.
38. Hulley S., Grady D., Bush T., et al. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. Heart and Estrogen/ progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. JAMA. 1998 ; 280: 605-613.
39. Grady D., Applegate W., Bush T., Furberg C., Riggs B., Hulley SB Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS): design, methods, and baseline characteristics. Control Clin Trials. 1998 ; 19: 314-335.
40. Grady D., Herrington D., Bittner V., et al. Cardiovascular disease outcomes during 6.8 years of hormone therapy: Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study follow-up (HERS II). JAMA. 2002 ; 288: 49-57.
41. Hsia J., Criqui MH, Rodabough RJ, et al. Estrogen plus progestin and the risk of peripheral arterial disease: the Women's Health Initiative. Circulation. 2004 ; 109: 620-626.
42. Hsia J., Criqui MH, Herrington DM, et al. Conjugated equine estrogens and peripheral arterial disease risk: the Women's Health Initiative. Am Heart J. 2006 ; 152: 170-176.
43. Wassertheil-Smoller S., Hendrix SL, Limacher M., et al. Effect of estrogen plus progestin on stroke in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative-a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003 ; 289: 2673-2684.
44. Hendrix SL, Wassertheil-Smoller S., Johnson KC, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen on stroke in the Women's Health Initiative. Circulation. 2006 ; 113: 2425-2434.
45. Viscoli CM, Brass LM, Kernan WN, Sarrel PM, Suissa S., Horwitz RI A clinical trial of estrogen-replacement therapy after ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2001 ; 345: 1243-1249.
46. Bushnell CD Oestrogen and stroke in women: assessment of risk. Lancet Neurol. 2005 ; 4: 743-751.
47. Gillum LA, Mamidipudi SK, Johnston SC Ischemic stroke risk with oral contraceptives: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2000 ; 284: 72-78.
48. Weiss EJ, Bray PF, Tayback M., et al. A polymorphism of a platelet glycoprotein receptor as an inherited risk factor for coronary thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1996 ; 334: 1090-1094.
49. Grady D., Wenger NK, Herrington D., et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy increases risk for venous thromboembolic disease. The Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study. Ann Intern Med. 2000 ; 132: 689-696.
50. Cushman M., Kuller LH, Prentice R., et al. Estrogen plus progestin and risk of venous thrombosis. JAMA. 2004 ; 292: 1573-1580.
51. Curb JD, Prentice RL, Bray PF, et al. Venous thrombosis and conjugated equine estrogen in women without a uterus. Arch Intern Med. 2006 ; 166: 772-780.
52. Scarabin PY, Oger E., Plu-Bureau G. Differential association of oral and transdermal oestrogen-replacement therapy with venous thromboembolism risk. Lancet. 2003 ; 362: 428-432.
53. Oger E., Alhenc-Gelas M., Lacut K., et al. Differential effects of oral and transdermal estrogen/progesterone regimens on sensitivity to activated protein C among postmenopausal women: a randomized trial. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003 ; 23: 1671-1676.
54. Daly E., Vessey MP, Hawkins MM, Carson JL, Gough P., Marsh S. Risk of venous thromboembolism in users of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet. 1996 ; 348: 977-980.
55. Perez Gutthann S, Garcia Rodriguez LA, Castellsague J, Duque Oliart A. Hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolism: population-based case-control study. BMJ. 1997 ; 314: 796-800.
56. Lip GY, Blann AD, Jones AF, Beevers DG Effects of hormone-replacement therapy on hemostatic factors, lipid factors, and endothelial function in women undergoing surgical menopause: implications for prevention of atherosclerosis. Am Heart J. 1997 ; 134: 764-771.
57. Davidson MH, Maki KC, Marx P., et al. Effects of continuous estrogen and estrogen-progestin replacement regimens on cardiovascular risk markers in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med. 2000 ; 160: 3315-3325.
58. Kessler CM, Szymanski LM, Shamsipour Z., Muesing RA, Miller VT, LaRosa JC Estrogen replacement therapy and coagulation: relationship to lipid and lipoprotein changes. Obstet Gynecol. 1997 ; 89: 326-331.
59. Koh KK, Ahn JY, Kim DS, et al. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on tissue factor activity, C-reactive protein, and the tissue factor pathway inhibitor. Am J Cardiol. 2003 ; 91: 371-373.
60. Grodstein F., Manson JE, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ A prospective, observational study of postmenopausal hormone therapy and primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Ann Intern Med. 2000 ; 133: 933-941.
61. Psaty BM, Smith NL, Lemaitre RN, et al. Hormone replacement therapy, prothrombotic mutations, and the risk of incident nonfatal myocardial infarction in postmenopausal women. JAMA. 2001 ; 285: 906-913.
62. Wise PM Estrogens and cerebrovascular stroke: what do animal models teach us? Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2005 ; 1052: 225-232.
63. Wise PM, Dubal DB, Wilson ME, Rau SW, Bottner M. Minireview: neuroprotective effects of estrogen-new insights into mechanisms of action. Endocrinology. 2001 ; 142: 969-973.
64. McCullough LD, Blizzard K., Simpson ER, Oz OK, Hurn PD Aromatase cytochrome P450 and extragonadal estrogen play a role in ischemic neuroprotection. J Neurosci. 2003 ; 23: 8701-8705.
65. Hurn PD, Brass LM Estrogen and stroke: a balanced analysis. Stroke. 2003 ; 34: 338-341.
66. Hu P., Greendale GA, Palla SL, et al. The effects of hormone therapy on the markers of inflammation and endothelial function and plasma matrix metalloproteinase-9 level in postmenopausal women: the Postmenopausal Estrogen Progestin Intervention (PEPI) trial. Atherosclerosis. 2006 ; 185: 347-352.
67. Davison S., Davis SR New markers for cardiovascular disease risk in women: impact of endogenous estrogen status and exogenous postmenopausal hormone therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 ; 88: 2470-2478.
68. Effects of estrogen or estrogen/progestin regimens on heart disease risk factors in postmenopausal women. The Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions (PEPI) trial.The Writing Group for the PEPI trial. JAMA. 1995 ; 273: 199-208.
69. Lamon-Fava S., Postfai B., Diffenderfer M., et al. Role of the estrogen and progestin in hormonal replacement therapy on apolipoprotein A-I kinetics in postmenopausal women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006 ; 26: 385-391.
70. Koh KK, Cardillo C., Bui MN, et al. Vascular effects of estrogen and cholesterol-lowering therapies in hypercholesterolemic postmenopausal women. Circulation. 1999 ; 99: 354-360.
71. Bui MN, Arai AE, Hathaway L., Waclawiw MA, Csako G., Cannon RO III. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on carotid arterial compliance in healthy postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol. 2002 ; 90: 82-85.
72. Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH Molecular and cellular basis of cardiovascular gender differences. Science. 2005 ; 308: 1583-1587.
73. Herrington DM, Werbel BL, Riley WA, Pusser BE, Morgan TM Individual and combined effects of estrogen/progestin therapy and lovastatin on lipids and flow-mediated vasodilation in postmenopausal women with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999 ; 33: 2030-2037.
74. Cushman M., Meilahn EN, Psaty BM, Kuller LH, Dobs AS, Tracy RP Hormone replacement therapy, inflammation, and hemostasis in elderly women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999 ; 19: 893-899.
75. Vehkavaara S., Hakala-Ala-Pietila T., Virkamaki A., et al. Differential effects of oral and transdermal estrogen replacement therapy on endothelial function in postmenopausal women. Circulation. 2000 ; 102: 2687-2693.
76. Walsh BW, Cox DA, Sashegyi A., Dean RA, Tracy RP, Anderson PW Role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 in the effects of hormone replacement therapy and raloxifene on C-reactive protein in postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol. 2001 ; 88: 825-828.
77. Pradhan AD, Manson JE, Rossouw JE, et al. Inflammatory bio-markers, hormone replacement therapy, and incident coronary heart disease: prospective analysis from the Women's Health Initiative observational study. JAMA. 2002 ; 288: 980-987.
78. Ross R. Atherosclerosis-an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med. 1999 ; 340: 115-126.
79. Wagner JD, Clarkson TB The applicability of hormonal effects on atherosclerosis in animals to heart disease in postmenopausal women. Semin Reprod Med. 2005 ; 23: 149-156.
80. Rossouw JE, Prentice RL, Manson JE, et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease by age and years since menopause. JAMA. 2007 ; 297: 1465-1477.
81. Clarkson TB, Appt SE Controversies about HRT-lessons from monkey models. Maturitas. 2005 ; 51: 64-74.
82. Clarkson TB, Anthony MS, Wagner JD A comparison of tibolone and conjugated equine estrogens effects on coronary artery atherosclerosis and bone density of postmenopausal monkeys. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001 ; 86: 5396-5404.
83. Appt SE, Clarkson TB, Lees CJ, Anthony MS Low-dose estrogens inhibit coronary artery atherosclerosis in postmenopausal monkeys. Maturitas. 2006 ; 55: 187-194.
84. Rosenfeld ME, Kauser K., Martin- McNulty B, Polinsky P, Schwartz SM, Rubanyi GM. Estrogen inhibits the initiation of fatty streaks throughout the vasculature but does not inhibit intra-plaque hemorrhage and the progression of established lesions in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Atherosclerosis. 2002 ; 164: 251-259.
85. Naghavi M., Libby P., Falk E., et al. From vulnerable plaque to vulnerable patient: a call for new definitions and risk assessment strategies: part I. Circulation. 2003 ; 108: 1664-1672.
86. Zanger D., Yang BK, Ardans J., et al. Divergent effects of hormone therapy on serum markers of inflammation in postmenopausal women with coronary artery disease on appropriate medical management. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000 ; 36: 1797-1802.
87. Hansson GK Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2005 ; 352: 1685-1695.
88. Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH The protective effects of estrogen on the cardiovascular system. N Engl J Med. 1999 ; 340: 1801-1811.
89. Brouchet L., Krust A., Dupont S., Chambon P., Bayard F., Arnal JF Estradiol accelerates reendothelialization in mouse carotid artery through estrogen receptor-alpha but not estrogen receptor-beta. Circulation. 2001 ; 103: 423-428.
90. Nathan L., Shi W., Dinh H., et al. Testosterone inhibits early atherogenesis by conversion to estradiol: critical role of aromatase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001 ; 98: 3589-3593.
91. Patten RD, Pourati I., Aronovitz MJ, et al. 17beta-estradiol reduces cardiomyocyte apoptosis in vivo and in vitro via activation of phospho-inositide-3 kinase/Akt signaling. Circ Res. 2004 ; 95: 692-699.
92. Espeland MA, Hogan PE, Fineberg SE, et al. Effect of postmenopausal hormone therapy on glucose and insulin concentrations. PEPI Investigators. Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions. Diabetes Care. 1998 ; 21: 1589-1595.
93. Kanaya AM, Herrington D., Vittinghoff E., et al. Glycemic effects of postmenopausal hormone therapy: the Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2003 ; 138: 1-9.
94. Margolis KL, Bonds DE, Rodabough RJ, et al. Effect of oestrogen plus progestin on the incidence of diabetes in postmenopausal women: results from the Women's Health Initiative hormone trial. Diabetologia. 2004 ; 47: 1175-1187.
95. Bonds DE, Lasser N., Qi L., et al. The effect of conjugated equine oestrogen on diabetes incidence: the Women's Health Initiative randomised trial. Diabetologia. 2006 ; 49: 459-468.
96. Evans EM, Van Pelt RE, Binder EF, Williams DB, Ehsani AA, Kohrt WM Effects of HRT and exercise training on insulin action, glucose tolerance, and body composition in older women. J Appl Physiol. 2001 ; 90: 2033-2040.
97. Sites CK, L'Hommedieu GD, Toth MJ, Brochu M., Cooper BC, Fairhurst PA The effect of hormone replacement therapy on body composition, body fat distribution, and insulin sensitivity in menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 ; 90: 2701-2707.
98. Lobo RA, Pickar JH, Wild RA, Walsh B., Hirvonen E. Metabolic impact of adding medroxyprogesterone acetate to conjugated estrogen therapy in postmenopausal women. The Menopause Study Group. Obstet Gynecol. 1994 ; 84: 987-995.
99. DeFronzo RA Pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Med Clin North Am. 2004 ; 88: 787-835, ix.
100. Maffei L., Murata Y., Rochira V., et al. Dysmetabolic syndrome in a man with a novel mutation of the aromatase gene: effects of testosterone, alendronate, and estradiol treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004 ; 89: 61-70.
101. Morin-Papunen LC, Vauhkonen I., Ruokonen A., Tapanainen JS, Raudaskoski T. Effects of tibolone and cyclic hormone replacement therapy on glucose metabolism in non-diabetic obese postmenopausal women: a randomized study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004 ; 150: 705-714.
102. Van Pelt RE, Gozansky WS, Schwartz RS, Kohrt WM Intravenous estrogens increase insulin clearance and action in postmenopausal women. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003 ; 285: E311 - E317.
103. Ding EL, Song Y., Malik VS, Liu S. Sex differences of endogenous sex hormones and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2006 ; 295: 1288-1299.
104. Heine PA, Taylor JA, Iwamoto GA, Lubahn DB, Cooke PS Increased adipose tissue in male and female estrogen receptor-alpha knockout mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 ; 97: 12729-12734.
105. Jones ME, Thorburn AW, Britt KL, et al. Aromatase-deficient (ArKO) mice have a phenotype of increased adiposity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 ; 97: 12735-12740.
106. Simpson ER, McInnes KJ Sex and fat-can one factor handle both ? Cell Metab. 2005 ; 2: 346-347.
107. Barish GD, Evans RM PPARs and LXRs: atherosclerosis goes nuclear. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2004 ; 15: 158-165.
108. Le May C., Chu K., Hu M., et al. 2006. Estrogens protect pancreatic beta-cells from apoptosis and prevent insulin-deficient diabetes mellitus in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 ;103: 9232-9237.
109. Day DS, Gozansky WS, Van Pelt RE, Schwartz RS, Kohrt WM Sex hormone suppression reduces resting energy expenditure and β-adrenergic support of resting energy expenditure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 ; 90: 3312-3317.
110. Yamasaki H., Douchi T., Yamamoto S., Oki T., Kuwahata R., Nagata Y. Body fat distribution and body composition during GnRH agonist therapy. Obstet Gynecol. 2001 ; 97: 338-342.
111. Revilla R., Revilla M., Villa LF, Cortes J., Arribas I., Rico H. Changes in body composition in women treated with gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists. Maturitas. 1998 ; 31: 63-68.
112. Ley CJ, Lees B., Stevenson JC Sex- and menopause-associated changes in body-fat distribution. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992 ; 55: 950-954.
113. Pasquali R., Casimirri F., Labate AM, et al. Body weight, fat distribution and the menopausal status in women.The VMH Collaborative Group. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1994 ; 18: 614-621.
114. Espeland MA, Stefanick ML, Kritz-Silverstein D., et al. Effect of postmenopausal hormone therapy on body weight and waist and hip girths. Postmenopausal Estrogen-Progestin Interventions study investigators. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997 ; 82: 1549-1556.
115. Jensen LB, Vestergaard P., Hermann AP, et al. Hormone replacement therapy dissociates fat mass and bone mass, and tends to reduce weight gain in early postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled 5-year clinical trial of the Danish Osteoporosis Prevention Study. J Bone Miner Res. 2003 ; 18: 333-342.
116. Utian WH, Gass ML, Pickar JH Body mass index does not influence response to treatment, nor does body weight change with lower doses of conjugated estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate in early postmenopausal women. Menopause. 2004 ; 11 (3). 306-314.
117. Chen Z., Bassford T., Green SB, et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and body composition-a substudy of the estrogen plus progestin trial of the Women's Health Initiative. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005 ; 82 (3). 651-656.