Neurohormonal pathways regulating food intake and changes after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass

Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases

Volumn 1, Issue 5, 2005, Pages 486-495

  Orlando, Frank A ^a   Goncalves, Carolina G ^a   George, Zachariah M ^a   Halverson, John D ^a   Cunningham, Paul R ^a   Meguid, Michael M ^a  

^a Surgical Metabolism and Nutrition Laboratory   (United States)

Author keywords

Adipokine; Adiponectin; Adipose; Appetite; Arcuate; Bariatric surgery; Diabetes; Ghrelin; Glucagon like peptide 1; Glucose dependent insulinotropic polypeptide; Hypothalamus; Insulin; Leptin; Neuropeptide; Neuropeptide Y; Obesity; Peptide YY; Resistin

Indexed keywords

ADIPONECTIN; AGOUTI RELATED PROTEIN; CHOLECYSTOKININ; COCAINE AND AMPHETAMINE REGULATED TRANSCRIPT PEPTIDE; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONE; INSULIN; LEPTIN; LUTEINIZING HORMONE; NEUROPEPTIDE Y; PEPTIDE YY; PROOPIOMELANOCORTIN; PROTIRELIN; RESISTIN;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION; FOOD INTAKE; HORMONAL REGULATION; HORMONE ACTION; HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; MORBID OBESITY; MOTOR SYSTEM; NERVE TRACT; NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION; NONHUMAN; NUTRIENT; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; REVIEW; ROUX Y ANASTOMOSIS; SENSORY NERVE; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; WEIGHT CONTROL;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; AFFERENT PATHWAYS; ANIMALS; BRAIN; EATING; EFFERENT PATHWAYS; GASTRIC BYPASS; HUMANS; INSULIN; LEPTIN; PEPTIDE HORMONES; STOMACH;

EID: 33646448565     PISSN: 15507289     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.soard.2005.05.009     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Buchwald H., Avidor Y., Braunwald E., et al. Bariatric surgery. a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 292 (2004) 724-737
2. Van Gaal L.F., Wauters M.A., and De Leeuw I.H. Anti-obesity drugs. what does sibutramine offer? An analysis of its potential contribution to obesity treatment. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 106 (1998) 35-40
3. Norris S.L., Zhang X., Avenell A., et al. Efficacy of pharmacotherapy for weight loss in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 164 (2004) 1395-1404
4. Buchwald H. Overview of bariatric surgery. J Am Coll Surg 194 (2002) 367-375
5. Pories W.J., Swanson M.S., MacDonald K.G., et al. Who would have thought it? An operation proves to be the most effective therapy for adult-onset diabetes mellitus. Ann Surg 222 (1995) 339-350
6. Konturek S.J., Konturek J.W., Pawlik T., et al. Brain-gut axis and its control in the control of food intake. J Physiol Pharmacol 1 (2004) 137-154
7. Grill H.J., and Kaplan J.M. The neuroanatomical axis for control of energy balance. Front Neuroendocrinol 23 (2002) 2-40
8. Berthoud H.-R. Mind versus metabolism in the control of food intake and energy balance. Physiol Behav 81 (2004) 781-793
9. Kelley A.E. Ventral striatal control of appetitive motivation. role in ingestive behavior and reward-related learning. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 27 (2004) 765-776
10. Gershon M.D., Kirchgessner A.L., and Wade P.R. Functional anatomy of the enteric nervous system. In: Johnson L.R. (Ed). Physiology of the gastrointestinal tract. 3rd ed (1994), Raven Press, New York 381-422
11. Shaver S.W., Pang J.J., Wainman D.S., et al. Morphology and function of capillary networks in subregions of the rat tuber cinereum. Cell Tissue Res 267 (1992) 437-448
12. Gross P.M., Wall K.M., Pang J.J., et al. Microvascular specializations promoting rapid interstitial solute dispersion in nucleus tractus solitarius. Am J Physiol 259 (1990) R1131-R1138
13. Grill H.J., Schwartz M.W., Kaplan J.M., et al. Evidence that the caudal brainstem is a target for the inhibitory effect of leptin on food intake. Endocrinology 143 (2002) 239-246
14. Faulconbridge L.F., Cummings D.E., Kaplan J.M., et al. Hyperphagic effects of brainstem ghrelin administration. Diabetes 52 (2003) 2260-2265
15. 13-36) inhibit neurons of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 273 (1997) R213-R218
16. Horvath T.L., Diano S., and van den Pol A.N. Synaptic interaction between hypocretin (orexin) and neuropeptide Y cells in the rodent and primate hypothalamus. a novel circuit implicated in metabolic and endocrine regulations. J Neurosci 19 (1999) 1072-1087
17. Stanley B.G., Krykouli S.E., Lampert S., et al. Neuropeptide Y chronically injected into the hypothalamus. a powerful neurochemical inducer of hyperphagia and obesity. Peptides 7 (1986) 1189-1192
18. Sahu A., Sninsky C.A., and Kalra S.P. Evidence that hypothalamic neuropeptide Y gene expression and NPY levels in the paraventricular nucleus increase before the onset of hyperphagia in experimental diabetes. Brain Res 755 (1997) 339-342
19. Hagan M.M., Benoit S.C., Rushing P.A., et al. Immediate and prolonged patterns of agouti-related peptide (83-132)-induced c-fos activation in hypothalamic and extrahypothalamic sites. Endocrinology 142 (2001) 1050-1056
20. Bronstein D.M., Schafer M.K., Watson S.J., et al. Evidence that beta-endorphin is synthesized in cells in the nucleus tractus solitarius. detection of POMC mRNA. Brain Res 587 (1992) 269-275
21. Krude H., Biebermann H., Luck W., et al. Severe early-onset obesity, adrenal insufficiency and red hair pigmentation caused by POMC mutations in humans. Nat Genet 19 (1998) 155-157
22. Lubrano-Berthelier C., Cavazos M., and Vaisse C. Human MC4R promoter. characterization and role in obesity. Diabetes 52 (2003) 2996-3000
23. Koylu E.O., Couceyro P.R., Lambert P.D., et al. Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide immunohistochemical localization in the rat brain. J Comp Neurol 391 (1998) 115-132
24. Lambert P.D., Couceyro P.R., McGirr K.M., et al. CART peptides in the central control of feeding and interactions with neuropeptide Y. Synapse 29 (1998) 293-298
25. Di Marzo V., and Matias I. Endocannabinoid control of food intake and energy balance. Nat Neurosci 8 (2005) 585-589
26. Cota D., Marsicano G., Tschop M., et al. The endogenous cannabinoid system affects energy balance via central orexigenic drive and peripheral lipogenesis. J Clin Invest 112 (2003) 423-431
27. Bartness T.J. Dual innervation of white adipose tissue. some evidence for parasympathetic nervous system involvement. J Clin Invest 110 (2002) 1235-1237
28. Mueller W.M., Gregoire F.M., Stanhope K.L., et al. Evidence that glucose metabolism regulates leptin secretion from cultured rat adipocytes. Endocrinology 139 (1998) 551-558
29. Holdstock C., Engstrom B.E., Ohrvall M., et al. Ghrelin and adipose tissue regulatory peptides. effect of gastric bypass surgery in obese humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 (2003) 3177-3183
30. Yamauchi T., Kamon J., Minokoshi Y., et al. Adiponectin stimulates glucose utilisation and fatty-acid oxidation by activating AMP-activated protein kinase. Nat Med 8 (2002) 1288-1295
31. Fernandez-Real J.M., Castro A., Vasquez G., et al. Adiponectin is associated with vascular function independent of insulin sensitivity. Diabetes Care 27 (2004) 739-745
32. Ouchi N., Kihara S., Arita Y., et al. Novel modulator for endothelial adhesion molecules. adipocyte-derived plasma protein adiponectin. Circulation 100 (1999) 2473-2476
33. Okamoto Y., Kihara S., Ouchi N., et al. Adiponectin reduces atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation 106 (2002) 2767-2770
34. Banerjee R.R., Rangwala S.M., Shapiro J.S., et al. Regulation of fasting blood glucose by resistin. Science 303 (2004) 1195-1198
35. Kawanami D., Maemura K., Takeda N., et al. Direct reciprocal effects of resistin and adiponectin on vascular endothelial cells. a new insight into adipocytokine-endothelial cell interactions. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 314 (2004) 415-419
36. Milan G., Granzotto M., Scarda A., et al. Resistin and adiponectin expression in visceral fat of obese rats. effect of weight loss. Obes Res 10 (2002) 1095-1103
37. Schwartz M.W., Baskin D.G., Bukowski T.R., et al. Specificity of leptin action on elevated blood glucose levels and hypothalamic neuropeptide Y gene expression in ob/ob mice. Diabetes 45 (1996) 531-535
38. Schwartz M., Seeley R.J., Weigle D.S., Burn P., Campfield L.A., and Baskin D.G. Leptin increases hypothalamic proopiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA expression in the rostral arcuate nucleus. Diabetes 46 (1997) 2119-2123
39. Kristensen P., Judge M.E., Thim L., et al. Hypothalamic CART is new anorectic peptide regulated by leptin. Nature 393 (1998) 72-76
40. Shiraishi T., Sasaki K., Niijima A., et al. Leptin effects on feeding-related hypothalamic and peripheral neuronal activities in normal and obese rats. Nutrition 15 (1999) 576-579
41. Smith F.J., Campfield L.A., Moschera J.A., et al. Brain administration of OB protein (leptin) inhibits neuropeptide-Y-induced feeding in ob/ob mice. Regul Pept 75-76 (1998) 433-439
42. Qian S., Chen H., Weingarth D., et al. Neither agouti-related protein nor neuropeptide Y is critically required for the regulation of energy homeostasis in mice. Mol Cell Biol 22 (2002) 5027-5035
43. Banks W.A., Kastin A.J., Huang W., et al. Leptin enters the brain by a saturable system independent of insulin. Peptides 17 (1996) 305-311
44. Hu Z., Cha S.H., Chohnam S., et al. Hypothalamic malonyl-CoA as a mediator of feeding behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100 (2003) 12624-12629
45. Bado A., Levasseur S., Attoub S., et al. The stomach is a source of leptin. Nature 394 (1998) 790-793
46. Peters J.H., McKay B.M., Simasko S.M., et al. Leptin-induced satiation mediated by abdominal vagal afferents. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 288 (2005) R879-R884
47. Buchan A.M., Polak J.M., Solcia E., et al. Electron immunohistochemical evidence for human intestinal I cells as the source of CCK. Gut 19 (1978) 403-407
48. Ekblad E., and Sundler F. Distribution of pancreatic polypeptide and peptide YY. Peptides 23 (2002) 251-261
49. Orskov C., Wettergreen A., and Holst J.J. Secretion of the incretin hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 and gastric inhibitory polypeptide correlates with insulin secretion in normal man throughout the day. Scand J Gastroenterol 7 (1996) 665-670
50. Date Y., Kojima M., Hosoda H., et al. Ghrelin, a novel growth hormone-releasing acylated peptide, is synthesized in a distinct cell type in the gastrointestinal tracts of rats and humans. Endocrinology 141 (2000) 4255-4261
51. Corp E.S., McQuade J., Moran T.H., et al. Characterization of type A and B CCK receptor-binding sites in rat vagus nerve. Brain Res 623 (1993) 161-166
52. Schwartz G.J., McHugh P.R., and Moran T.H. Pharmacological dissociation of responses to CCK and gastric loads in rat mechanosensitive vagal afferents. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 267 (1994) R303-R308
53. Schwartz G.J., Tougas G., and Moran T.H. Integration of vagal afferent responses to duodenal loads and exogenous CCK in rats. Peptides 16 (1995) 707-711
54. Moran T.H., and McHugh P.R. Cholecystokinin suppresses food intake by inhibiting gastric emptying. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 242 (1982) R491-R497
55. Fan W., Ellacott K.L., Halatchev I.G., et al. Cholecystokinin-mediated suppression of feeding involves the brainstem melanocortin system. Nat Neurosci 7 (2004) 335-336
56. (3-36). New Engl J Med 349 (2003) 941-948
57. (3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake. Nature 418 (2002) 650-654
58. Sainsbury A., Schwarzer C., Couzens M., et al. Y2 receptor deletion attenuates the type 2 diabetic syndrome of ob/ob mice. Diabetes 51 (2002) 3420-3427
59. Vilsboll T., Krarup T., Madsbad S., et al. Both GLP-1 and GIP are insulinotropic at basal and postprandial glucose levels and contribute nearly equally to the incretin effect of a meal in healthy subjects. Regul Pept 114 (2003) 115-121
60. Meier J.J., Goetze O., Anstipp J., et al. Gastric inhibitory polypeptide does not inhibit gastric emptying in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 286 (2004) E621-E625
61. Delgado-Aros S., Doe-Young K., Burton D.D., et al. Effect of GLP-1 on gastric volume, emptying, maximum volume ingested, and postprandial symptoms in humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 282 (2002) G424-G431
62. (3-36) inhibits gastric emptying and produces acute reductions in food intake in rhesus monkeys. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 288 (2005) R384-R388
63. Asakawa A., Inui A., Yuzuriha H., et al. Characterization of the effects of pancreatic polypeptide in the regulation of energy balance. Gastroenterology 124 (2003) 1325-1336
64. Vilsboll T., Krarup T., Sonne J., et al. Incretin secretion in relation to meal size and body weight in healthy subjects and people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 (2003) 2706-2713
65. Elahi D., McAloon-Dyke M., Fukagawa N.K., et al. The insulinotropic actions of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) (7-37) in normal and diabetic subjects. Regul Pept 51 (1994) 63-74
66. Rubino F., Gagner M., Gentileschi P., et al. The early effect of the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass on hormones involved in body weight regulation and glucose metabolism. Ann Surg 240 (2004) 236-242
67. Cummings D.E., Purnell J.Q., and Frayo R.S. Preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes 50 (2001) 1714-1719
68. Date Y., Murakami N., Toshinai K., et al. The role of the gastric afferent vagal nerve in ghrelin-induced feeding and growth hormone secretion in rats. Gastroenterology 123 (2002) 1120-1128
69. Williams D.L., Grill H.J., Cummings D.E., et al. Vagotomy dissociates short- and long-term controls of circulating ghrelin. Endocrinology 144 (2003) 5184-5187
70. Asakawa A., Inui A., Fujimiya M., et al. Stomach regulates energy balance via acylated ghrelin and desacyl ghrelin. Gut 54 (2005) 18-24
71. Banks W.A., Tschop M., Robinson S.M., et al. Extent and direction of ghrelin transport across the blood-brain barrier is determined by its unique primary structure. J Pharmacol 302 (2002) 822-827
72. Nakazato M., Murakami N., Date Y., et al. A role for ghrelin in the central regulation of feeding. Nature 409 (2001) 194-198
73. Olszewski P.K., Li D., and Levine A.S. Neural basis of orexigenic effects of ghrelin acting within lateral hypothalamus. Peptides 24 (2003) 597-602
74. Tschop M., Weyer C., Tataranni P.A., et al. Circulating plasma ghrelin levels are decreased in human obesity. Diabetes 50 (2001) 707-709
75. Hansen T.K., Dall R., Jorgensen J.O., et al. Weight loss increases circulating levels of ghrelin in human obesity. Clin Endocinol 56 (2002) 203-206
76. English P.J., Ghatei M.A., Wilding J.P., et al. Food fails to suppress ghrelin levels in obese humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 (2002) 2984-2987
77. Cani P.D., Montoya M.L., Lambert D.M., et al. Potential modulation of plasma ghrelin and glucagon-like peptide-1 by anorexigenic cannabinoid compounds, SR141716A (rimonabant) and oleoylethanolamide. Brit J Nutr 92 (2004) 757-761
78. Svensson J., Lonn L., Jansson J.O., et al. Two-month treatment of obese subjects with the oral growth hormone (GH) secretagogue MK-677 increases GH secretion, fat-free mass, and energy expenditure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83 (1998) 362-369
79. Kim D.Y., and Camilleri M. Serotonin. a mediator of the brain-gut connection. Am J Gastroenterol 95 (2000) 2698-2709
80. Romanova I.V., Ramos E.J., Xu Y., et al. Neurobiological changes in the hypothalamus associated with weight loss after gastric bypass. J Am Coll Surg 199 (2004) 887-895
81. Sato T., Fetissov S.O., Meguid M.M., et al. Intra-supraoptic nucleus sulpiride improves anorexia in tumor-bearing rats. Neuroreport 12 (2001) 2429-2432
82. Sabatier N., Caquineau C., Dayanithi G., et al. α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone stimulates oxytocin release from the dendrites of hypothalamic neurons while inhibiting oxytocin release from their terminals in the neurohypophysis. J Neurosci 23 (2003) 10351-10358
83. Verty A.N.A., McFarlene J.R., McGregor I.S., et al. Evidence for a relationship between CB1 cannabinoid and oxytocin receptors in food and water intake. Neuropharmacology 47 (2004) 593-603
84. McCann M.J., and Rogers R.C. Oxytocin excites gastric-related neurones in rat dorsal vagal complex. J Physiol 428 (1990) 95-108
85. Rosenbaum M., Murphy E.M., Heymsfield S.B., et al. Low-dose leptin administration reverses effects of sustained weight reduction on energy expenditure and circulating concentrations of thyroid hormones. J Clin Endocinol Metab 87 (2002) 2391-2394
86. Heiman M.L., Ahima R.S., Craft L.S., et al. Leptin inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in response to stress. Endocrinology 138 (1997) 3859-3863
87. Solano M.P., Kumar M., Fernandez B., et al. The pituitary response to ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone is enhanced in obese men and correlates with insulin resistance. Horm Metab Res 33 (2001) 39-43
88. Bittencourt J.C., Presse F., Arias C., et al. The melanin-concentrating hormone system of the rat brain. an immuno- and hybridization histochemical characterization. J Comp Neurol 319 (1992) 218-245
89. Sakurai T., Amemiya A., Ishii M., et al. Orexins and orexin receptors. a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G-protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior. Cell 92 (1998) 573-585
90. Bittencourt J.C., and Elias C.F. Melanin-concentrating hormone and neuropeptide E1 projections from the lateral hypothalamic area and zona incerta to the medial septal nucleus and spinal cord. a study using multiple neuronal tracers. Brain Res 805 (1998) 1-19
91. Qu D., Ludwig D.S., Gammeltoft S., et al. A role for melanin-concentrating hormone in the central regulation of feeding behaviour. Nature 380 (1996) 243-247
92. Shimada M., Tritos N.A., Lowell B.B., et al. Mice lacking melanin-concentrating hormone are hypophagic and lean. Nature 396 (1998) 670-674
93. Yamanaka A., Sakurai T., Katsumoto T., et al. Chronic intracerebroventricular administration of orexin-A to rats increases food intake in daytime, but has no effect on body weight. Brain Res 849 (1999) 248-252
94. Asakawa A., Inui A., Meguid M., et al. Effects of agouti-related protein, orexin and melanin-concentrating hormone on oxygen consumption in mice. Int J Mol Med 10 (2002) 523-525
95. van den Top M., Nolan M.F., Lee K., et al. Orexins induced increased excitability and synchronization of rat sympathetic preganglionic neurons. J Physiol 549 (2003) 809-821
96. Karason K., Molgaard Wikstrand J., and Sjostrom L. Heart rate variability in obesity and the effect of weight loss. Am J Cardiol 83 (1999) 1242-1247
97. Matsumoto T., Miyawaki T., Ue H., et al. Autonomic responsiveness to acute cold exposure in obese and non-obese young women. Int J Obes 23 (1999) 793-800
98. Kenler H.A., Brolin R.E., and Cody R.P. Changes in eating behavior after horizontal gastroplasty and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Am J Clin Nutr 52 (1990) 87-92
99. Halmi K.A., Mason E., Falk J.R., et al. Appetive behavior after gastric bypass for obesity. Int J Obes 5 (1981) 457-464
100. Scruggs D.M., Buffington C., and Cowan G.S. Taste acuity of the morbidly obese before and after gastric bypass surgery. Obes Surg 4 (1994) 24-28
101. Burge J.C., Schaumburg J.Z., Choban P.S., et al. Changes in patients' taste acuity after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass for clinically severe obesity. J Am Diet Assoc 95 (1995) 666-670
102. Pappas T.N. Physiological satiety implications of gastrointestinal antiobesity surgery. Am J Clin Nutr 55 (1992) 571S-572S
103. Korner J., Bessler M., Cirilo L., et al. Effects of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery on fasting and postprandial concentrations of plasma ghrelin, PYY and insulin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90 (2004) 359-365
104. Kellum J.M., Kuemmerle J.F., O'Dorisio T.M., et al. Gastrointestinal hormone responses to meals before and after gastric bypass and vertical banded gastroplasty. Ann Surg 211 (1990) 763-770
105. Faraj M., Havel P.J., Phelis S., et al. Plasma acylation-stimulating protein, adiponectin, leptin, and ghrelin before and after weight loss induced by gastric bypass surgery in morbidly obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 (2003) 1594-1602
106. Kral J.G., Gortz L., Hermansson G., et al. Gastroplasty for obesity. long-term weight loss improved by vagotomy. World J Surg 17 (1993) 75-78
107. Potoczna N., Branson R., Kral J.G., et al. Gene variants and binge eating as predictors of comorbidity and outcome of treatment in severe obesity. J Gastrointest Surg 8 (2004) 971-982
108. Lin E., Gletsu N., Fugate K., et al. Effects of gastric surgery on systemic ghrelin levels in the morbidly obese. Arch Surg 139 (2004) 780-784
109. Morinigo R., Casamitjana R., Vidal J., et al. Short-term effects of gastric bypass on circulating ghrelin levels. Obes Res 12 (2004) 1108-1116
110. Cummings D.E., Weigle D.S., Frayo R.S., et al. Plasma ghrelin levels after diet-induced weight loss or gastric bypass surgery. New Engl J Med 346 (2002) 1623-1630
111. Geloneze B., Tambascia M.A., Pareja J.C., et al. Ghrelin, a gut-brain hormone. effect of gastric bypass surgery. Obes Surg 13 (2003) 17-22
112. Leonetti F., Silecchia G., Iacobellis G., et al. Different plasma ghrelin levels after laprascopic gastric bypass and adjustable gastric banding in morbidly obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 (2003) 4227-4231
113. Fruhbeck G., Diez-Caballero A., Gil M.J., et al. Decrease in plasma ghrelin concentrations following bariatric surgery depends on the functional integrity of the fundus. Obes Surg 14 (2004) 606-612
114. Stoeckli R., Chanda R., Langer I., et al. Changes in body weight and plasma ghrelin levels after gastric banding and gastric bypass. Obes Res 12 (2004) 346-350
115. Nijhuis J., van Dielen F.M., Buurman W.A., et al. Ghrelin, leptin and insulin levels after restrictive surgery. a 2-year follow-up study. Obes Surg 14 (2004) 783-787
116. Schindler K., Prager G., Ballaban T., et al. Impact of laprascopic adjustable gastric banding on plasma ghrelin, eating beahviour and body weight. Eur J Clin Invest 34 (2004) 549-554
117. Tritos N.A., Mun E., Bertkau A., et al. Serum ghrelin levels in response to glucose load in obese subjects post-gastric bypass surgery. Obes Res 11 (2003) 919-924
118. Schrumpf E., Linnestad P., Nygaard K., et al. Pancreatic polypeptide secretion before and after gastric bypass surgery for morbid obesity. Scand J Gastroenterol 16 (1981) 1009-1014
119. Smith S., Edward C.B., and Goodman G.N. Changes in diabetic management after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Obes Surg 6 (1996) 345-348
120. Strader D., Vahl T.P., Jandacek R.J., et al. Weight loss through ideal transposition is accompanied by increased ileal hormone secretion and synthesis in rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 288 (2005) E447-E453
121. Vendrell J., Broch M., Vilarrasa N., et al. Resistin, adiponectin, ghrelin, leptin, and proinflammatory cytokines. relationships in obesity. Obes Res 12 (2004) 962-971
122. Koffler M., and Kisch E.S. Starvation diet and very-low-calorie diets may induce insulin resistance and overt diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Complications 10 (1996) 109-112
123. Xu Y., Ohinata K., Meguid M.M., et al. Gastric bypass model in the obese rat to study metabolic mechanisms of weight loss. J Surg Res 107 (2002) 56-63
124. Meguid M.M., Ramos E.J.B., Suzuki S., et al. A surgical rat model of human Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. J Gastrointest Surg 8 (2004) 621-630
125. Suzuki S., Ramos E.J., Goncalves C.G., et al. Changes in GI hormones and their effect on gastric emptying and transit times after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass in rat model. Surgery 137 (2005) In press
126. Gould J.C., Garren M.J., and Starling J.R. Laparoscopic gastric bypass results in decreased prescription medication costs within 6 months. J Gastrointest Surg 8 (2004) 983-987
127. Sugerman H.J., Kellum J.M., DeMaria E.J., et al. Conversion of failed or complicated vertical banded gastroplasty to gastric bypass in morbid obesity. Am J Surg 171 (1996) 263-269