A critical review of interfaces with the peripheral nervous system for the control of neuroprostheses and hybrid bionic systems

Journal of the Peripheral Nervous System

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 229-258

  Navarro, Xavier ^a,b,f   Krueger, Thilo B ^c,d   Lago, Natalia ^a   Micera, Silvestro ^e   Stieglitz, Thomas ^d   Dario, Paolo ^e  

^a INSTITUT DE NEUROCIÈNCIES   (Spain)

^b University Institute affiliated with the Autonomous University of Barcelona   (Spain)

^c FRAUNHOFER INSTITUTE FOR BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF FREIBURG   (Germany)

^e SCUOLA SUPERIORE SANT ANNA   (Italy)

^f UNIVERSITAT AUTÒNOMA DE BARCELONA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Muscle electrode; Nerve stimulation; Neural electrode; Neuroprosthesis; Peripheral nervous system

Indexed keywords

IRIDIUM; PLATINUM; POLITEF; POLYIMIDE; SILASTIC; STAINLESS STEEL; TUNGSTEN;

BIONICS; BLINDNESS; BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CHRONIC PAIN; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CONDUCTANCE; CONTROL SYSTEM; DISABILITY; ELECTRODE; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; ELECTROMYOGRAM; ELECTROSTIMULATION THERAPY; ENCAPSULATION; EPILEPSY; FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION; HAND FUNCTION; HEARING IMPAIRMENT; HUMAN; IMPLANTATION; INCONTINENCE; LIMB PROSTHESIS; MATERIALS; MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; NERVE FIBER REGENERATION; NERVE STIMULATION; NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM; NEUROPROSTHESIS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATIENT MONITORING; PERIPHERAL NERVE; PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTHESIS; REVIEW; ROBOTICS; SEIZURE; SENSORIMOTOR FUNCTION; SLEEP APNEA SYNDROME; TRANSCUTANEOUS NERVE STIMULATION;

EID: 27644591279     PISSN: 10859489     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1085-9489.2005.10303.x     Document Type: Review

References (257)

1. Agnew WF, McCreery DB (1990). Neural Prostheses: Fundamental Studies. Biophysics and Bioengineering Series. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
2. Agnew WF, McCreery DB, Yuen TGH, Bullara LA (1989). Histologic and physiologic evaluation on electrically stimulated peripheral nerve: considerations for the selection of parameters. Ann Biomed Eng 17:39-60.
3. Akin T, Najafi K, Smoke RH, Bradley RM (1994). A micromachined silicon sieve electrode for nerve regeneration applications. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 41:305-313.
4. Alo KM, Holsheimer J (2002). New trends in neuromodulation for the management of neuropathic pain. Neurosurgery 50:690-703.
5. Aoyagi Y, Stein RB, Branner A, Pearson KG, Normann RA (2003). Capabilities of a penetrating microelectrode array for recording single units in dorsal root ganglia of the cat. J Neurosci Methods 128:9-20.
6. Arcos I, Davis R, Fey K, Mishler D, Sanderson D, Tanacs C, Vogel MJ, Wolf R, Zilberman Y, Schulman J (2002). Second-generation microstimulator. Artif Organs 26:228-231.
7. Arts HA, Jones DA, Anderson DJ (2003). Prosthetic stimulation of the auditory system with intraneural electrodes. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 112:20-25.
8. Barry DT, Geiringer SR, Ball RD (1985). Acoustic myography: a noninvasive monitor of motor unit fatigue. Muscle Nerve 8:189-194.
9. Barry DT, Hill T, Im D (1992). Muscle fatigue measured with evoked muscle vibrations. Muscle Nerve 15:303-309.
10. Barry DT, Leonard JA Jr, Gitter AJ, Ball RD (1986). Acoustic myography as a control signal for an externally powered prosthesis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 67:267-269.
11. Bhadra N, Kilgore KL, Peckham PH (2001). Implanted stimulators for restoration of function in spinal cord injury. Med Eng Phys 23:19-28.
12. Birbaumer N, Strehl U, Hinterberger T (2004). Brain-computer interfaces for verbal communication. In: Neuroprothetics: Theory and Practice. Horch KW, Dhillon GS (Eds). World Scientific, New Jersey, pp 1146-1157.
13. Bradley RM, Cao X, Akin T, Najafi K (1997). Long term chronic recordings from peripheral sensory fibers using a sieve electrode array. J Neurosci Methods 73:177-186.
14. Branner A, Normann RA (2000). A multielectrode array for intrafascicular recording and stimulation in sciatic nerve of cats. Brain Res Bull 51:293-306.
15. Branner A, Stein RB, Fernandez E, Aoyagi Y, Normann RA (2004). Long-term stimulation and recording with a penetrating microelectrode array in cat sciatic nerve. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 51:146-157.
16. Branner A, Stein RB, Normann RA (2001). Selective stimulation of cat sciatic nerve using an array of varying-length microelectrodes. J Neurophysiol 85:1585-1594.
17. Brindley GS (1972). Electrode array for making long-lasting electrical connections to spinal roots. J Physiol 222:135-136.
18. Brindley GS (1973). Emptying the bladder by stimulating sacral ventral roots. J Physiol 237:15P-16P.
19. Brindley GS (1994). The first 500 patients with sacral anterior root stimulator implants: general description. Paraplegia 32:795-805.
20. Brindley GS (1995). Neuroprostheses to restore male sexual or reproductive function. In: Neuroprostheses. Brindley GS, Rushton DN (Eds). Baillière Tindall, London, pp 15-20.
21. Brindley GS, Polkey CE, Rushton DN, Cardozo L (1986). Sacral anterior root stimulators for bladder control in paraplegia: the first 50 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 49:1104-1114.
22. Bronzino JD (1995). Biomedical Engineering Handbook. CRC Press, IEEE Press, Boca Raton.
23. Brummer SB, Robblee LS, Hambrecht FT (1983). Criteria for selecting electrodes for electrical stimulation: theoretical and practical considerations. Ann NY Acad Sci 405:159-171.
24. Cameron T, Liinamaa TL, Loeb GE, Richmond FJ (1998). Long-term biocompatibility of a miniature stimulator implanted in feline hind limb muscles. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 45:1024-1035.
25. Carpaneto J, Micera S, Zaccone F, Vecchi F, Dario P (2003). A sensorised thumb for force closed-loop control of hand neuroprostheses. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 11:346-353.
26. Carrozza MC, Cappiello G, Cavallaro E, Vecchi F, Micera S, Dario P (2004). Design and control of an underactuated cybernetic artificial hand. 10th International Symposium on Robotics and Applications.
27. Castro MCF, Cliquet A Jr (2000). Artificial sensorimotor integration in spinal cord injured subjects through neuromuscular and electrotactile stimulation. Artif Organs 24:710-717.
28. Cavallaro E, Micera S, Dario P, Jensen W, Sinkjaer T (2003). On the intersubject generalization ability in extracting kinematic information from afferent nervous signals. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 50:1063-1073.
29. Cavallaro E, Cappiello G, Micera S, Carrozza MC, Rantanen P, Dario P (2005). On the development of a biomechatronic system to record tendon sliding movements. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 52:1110-1119.
30. Ceballos D, Valero-Cabré A, Valderrama E, Schüttler M, Stieglitz T, Navarro X (2002). Morphological and functional evaluation of peripheral nerve fibers regenerated through polyimide sieve electrodes over long term implantation. J Biomed Mater Res 60:517-528.
31. Chae J, Hart R (1998). Comparison of discomfort associated with surface and percutaneous intramuscular electrical stimulation for persons with chronic hemiplegia. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 77:516-522.
32. Chapin JK, Moxon KA (2000). Neural Prosthesis for Restoration of Sensory and Motor Function. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
33. Chervin RD, Guilleminault C (1997). Diaphragm pacing for respiratory insufficiency. J Clin Neurophysiol 14:369-377.
34. Choi AQ, Cavanaugh JK, Durand DM (2001). Selectivity of multiple-contact nerve cuff electrodes: a simulation analysis. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 48:165-172.
35. Christodoulou CI, Pattichis CS (1999). Unsupervised pattern recognition for the classification of EMG signals. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 46:169-178.
36. Clark P, Connolly P, Curtis ASG, Dow JAT, Wilkinson CDW (1990). Topographical control of cell behaviour: II. Multiple grooved substrata. Development 108:635-644.
37. Cogan SF, Liu Y-P, McCaffrey M, Twardoch UM (1993). Thin film hermetic coatings. Quarterly Progress Report, NIH-NINDS, Neural Prosthesis Program No. 5, N44-NS-2-2311.
38. Connolly P, Moores GR, Monaghan W, Shen J, Britland S, Clark P (1992). Microelectronic and nanoelectronic interfacing techniques for biological systems. Sensors Actuators B 6:113-121.
39. Crago PE, Peckham PH, Thrope GB (1980). Modulation of muscle force by recruitment during intramuscular stimulation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 27:679-684.
40. Creasey GH (1993). Electrical stimulation of sacral roots for micturition after spinal cord injury. Urol Clin North Am 20:505-515.
41. Creasey G, Elefteriades J, DiMarco A, Talonen P, Bijak M, Girsch W, Kantor C (1996). Electrical stimulation to restore respiration. J Rehabil Res Dev 33:123-132.
42. Dario P, Garzella P, Toro M, Micera S, Alavi M, Meyer U, Valderrama E, Sebastiani L, Ghelarducci B, Mazzoni C, Pastacaldi P (1998). Neural interfaces for regenerated nerve stimulation and recording. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 6:353-363.
43. De Luca CJ (2002). Surface Electromyography: Detection and Recording. DelSys Inc, Boston.
44. Della Santina CC, Kovacs GTA, Lewis ER (1997). Multi-unit recording from regenerated bullfrog eighth nerve using implantable silicon-substrate microelectrodes. J Neurosci Methods 72:71-86.
45. Devasahayam SR (1992). Some aspects of functional neuromuscular stimulation. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 27:115-120.
46. Dhillon GS, Lawrence SM, Hutchinson DT, Horch K (2004). Residual function in peripheral nerve stumps of amputees: implications for neural control of artificial limbs. J Hand Surg [Am] 29A:605-615.
47. Donaldson PEK (1983). The Cooper cable: an implantable multi-conductor cable for neurological prostheses. Med Biol Eng Comput 21:371-374.
48. Donoghue JP (2002). Connecting cortex to machines: recent advances in brain interfaces. Nat Neurosci 5:1085-1088.
49. Drake KL, Wise KD, Farraye J, Anderson DJ, BeMent SL (1988). Performance of planar multisite microprobes in recording extracellular single-unit intracortical activity. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 35:719-732.
50. Droge MH, Gross GW, Hightower MH, Czisny LE (1986). Multielectrode analysis of coordinated, multisite, rhythmic bursting in cultured CNS monolayer networks. J Neurosci 6:1583-1592.
51. Dupont-Salter AC, Bagg SD, Creasy JL, Romano C, Romano D, Richmond FJR, Loeb GE (2004). First clinical experience with BION implants for therapeutic electrical stimulation. Neuromodulation 7:38-47.
52. Edell DJ (1986). A peripheral nerve information transducer for amputees: long-term multichannel recordings from rabbit peripheral nerves. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 33:203-214.
53. Edell DJ, Devaney L, Durfee WK, Gleason EF, Gleason KK, Herndon TO, Thompson CV, Wrighton MS (1993). Bioresistant integrated circuits. Quarterly Progress Report, NIH-NINDS, Neural Prosthesis Program No. 9, NO1-NS-0-2399.
54. Ehrfeld W, Munchmeyer D (1991). LIGA method, three dimensional microfabrication using synchrotron radiation. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res A 303:523-531.
55. Englehart K (1998). Signal representation for classification of the transient myoelectric signal. PhD Thesis, Fredericton, NB, Canada: University of New Brunswick.
56. Englehart K, Hudgins B (2003). A robust, real-time control scheme for multifunction myoelectric control. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 50:848-854.
57. Fang ZP, Mortimer JT (1991). A method to effect physiological recruitment order in electrically activated muscle. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 38:175-179.
58. Gordon KE, Ferris DP (2004). Proportional myoelectric control of a virtual object to investigate human efferent control. Exp Brain Res 159:478-486.
59. Fisher R, Handforth A (1999). Reassessment of vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy. Neurology 53:666-669.
60. Fromherz P, Offenhäuser A, Vetter T, Weis J (1991a). A neuron-silicon junction: a Retzius cell of the leech on an insulated-gate field-effect transistor. Science 252:1290-1293.
61. Fromherz P, Schaden H, Vetter T (1991b). Guided outgrowth of leech neurons in culture. Neurosci Lett 129:77-80.
62. Gandevia SC, Hales JP (1997). The methodology and scope of human microneurography. J Neurosci Methods 74:123-136.
63. Geddes LA, Roeder R (2001). Measurement of the direct-current (faradic) resistance of the electrode-electrolyte interface for commonly used electrode materials. Ann Biomed Eng 29:181-186.
64. Geddes LA, Roeder R (2003). Criteria for the selection of materials for implanted electrodes. Ann Biomed Eng 31:879-890.
65. Glenn WWL, Phelps ML, Elefteriades JA, Dentz B, Hogan JF (1986). Twenty years experience in phrenic nerve stimulation to pace the diaphragm. PACE 9:780-784.
66. González C, Rodríguez M (1997). A flexible perforated microelectrode array probe for action potential recording in nerve and muscles tissues. J Neurosci Methods 72:189-195.
67. Goodall EV, Horch KW (1992). Separation of action potentials in multiunit intrafascicular recordings. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 38:846-850.
68. Gorman PH, Mortimer JT (1986). Effect of stimulus parameters on recruitment with direct nerve stimulation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 30:407-414.
69. Grandjean PA, Mortimer JT (1986). Recruitment properties of monopolar and bipolar epimysial electrodes. Ann Biomed Eng 14:53-66.
70. Graupe D, Cline WK (1975). Functional separation of EMG signals via ARMA identification methods for prosthesis control purposes. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern 2:252-258.
71. Graupe D, Kohn KH (1997). Transcutaneous functional neuromuscular stimulation of certain traumatic complete thoracic paraplegics for independent short-distance ambulation. Neurol Res 19:323-333.
72. Graupe D, Salahi J, Kohn KH (1982). Multifunctional prosthesis and orthosis control via microcomputer identification of temporal pattern differences in single-site myoelectric signals. J Biomed Eng 4:17-22.
73. Grill WM, Mortimer JT (1996a). Quantification of recruitment properties of multiple contact cuff electrodes. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 4:49-62.
74. Grill WM, Mortimer JT (1996b). The effect of stimulus pulse duration on selectivity of neural stimulation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 43:161-166.
75. Grill WR, Mortimer JT (1998). Stability of the input-output properties of chronically implanted multiple contact nerve cuff stimulating electrodes. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 6: 364-373.
76. Gross GW, Kowalski J (1991). Experimental and theoretical analysis of random nerve cell network dynamics. In: Neural Networks: Concepts, Applications, and Implementations. Antognetti P, Milutinovic V (Eds). Prentice-Hall, Englewood City, NJ, pp 47-110.
77. Haemmerle H, Kobuch K, Kohler K, Nisch W, Sachs H, Stelzle M (2002). Biostability of micro-photodiode arrays for subretinal implantation. Biomaterials 23:797-804.
78. Hagbarth KE (1993). Microneurography and applications to issues of motor control: Fifth Annual Stuart Reiner Memorial Lecture. Muscle Nerve 16:693-705.
79. Hagbarth KE (2002). Microelectrode recordings from human peripheral nerves (microneurography). Muscle Nerve 11: S28-S35.
80. Haggerty HS, Lusted HS (1989). Histological reaction to polyimide films in the cochlea. Acta Otolaryngol 107:13-22.
81. Han J-S, Song W-K, Kim J-S, Bang W-C, Lee H, Bien Z (2000). New EMG pattern recognition based on soft computing techniques and its application to control a rehabilitation robotic arm. IIZUKA2000 Int Conf Soft Computing, Iizuka, Fukuoka, Japan.
82. Handa Y, Hoshimiya N, Iguchi Y, Oda T (1989). Development of percutaneous intramuscular electrode for multichannel FES system. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 36:705-710.
83. Hassenbusch SJ, Stanton-Hicks M, Schoppa D, Walsh JG, Covington EC (1996). Long-term results of peripheral nerve stimulation for reflex sympathetic dystrophy. J Neurosurg 84:415-423.
84. Haugland MK, Hoffer JA (1994). Slip information provided by nerve cuff signals: application in closed-loop control of functional electrical stimulation. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 2:29-36.
85. Haugland MK, Hoffer JA, Sinkjaer T (1994). Skin contact force information in sensory nerve signals recorded by implanted cuff electrodes. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 2:18-28.
86. Haugland MK, Sinkjaer T (1995). Cutaneous whole nerve recordings used for correction of footdrop in hemiplegic man. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 3:307-317.
87. Heiduschka P, Thanos S (1998). Implantable bioelectronic interfaces for lost nerve functions. Prog Neurobiol 55:433-461.
88. Hetke JF, Lund JL, Najafi K, Wise D, Anderson DJ (1994). Silicon ribbon cables for chronically implantable microelectrode arrays. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 41:314-321.
89. Hetke JF, Najafi K, Wise KD (1990). Flexible miniature ribbon cables for long-term connection to implantable sensors. Sensors Actuators A21-A23:999-1002.
90. Hewson DJ, Hogrel JY, Langeron Y, Duchene J (2003). Evolution in impedance at the electrode-skin interface of two types of surface EMG electrodes during long-term recordings. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 13:273-279.
91. Hof AL (1997). The relationship between electromyogram and muscle force. Sportverletz Sportschaden 11:79-86.
92. Hoffer JA, Kallesøe K (2001). How to use nerve cuffs to stimulate, record or modulate neural activity. In: Neural Prostheses for Restoration of Sensory and Motor Function. Chapin JK, Moxon KA (Eds). CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 139-175.
93. Hoogerwerf AC, Wise KD (1994). A 3D micro-electrode array for chronic neural recording. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 41:1136-1146.
94. Hoshiyama M, Kakigi R, Nagata O (1999). Peripheral nerve conduction recorded by a micro gradiometer system (micro-SQUID) in humans. Neurosci Lett 272:199-202.
95. Hudgins B, Parker P, Scott RN (1993). A new strategy for multifunction myoelectric control. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 40:82-94.
96. Inmann A, Haugland M (2004). Implementation of natural sensory feedback in a portable control system for a hand grasp neuroprosthesis. Med Eng Phys 26:449-458.
97. Janders M, Egert U, Stelzle M, Nisch W (1996). Novel thin-film titanium nitride micro-electrodes with excellent charge transfer capability for cell stimulation and sensing applications. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference of the IEEE/EMBS, pp 1191-1193.
98. Jensen W, Sinkjaer T, Sepulveda F (2002). Improving signal reliability for on-line joint angle estimation from nerve cuff recordings of muscle afferents. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 10:133-139.
99. Jezernik S, Craggs M, Grill WM, Creasey G, Rijkhoff NJ (2002). Electrical stimulation for the treatment of bladder dysfunction: current status and future possibilities. Neurol Res 24:413-430.
100. Ji J, Najafi K, Wise KD (1990). A scaled electronically-configurable multichannel recording array. Sensors Actuators A21-A23:589-591.
101. Jimbo Y, Kawana A (1992). Electrical stimulation and recording from cultured neurons using a planar electrode array. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 29:193-204.
102. Jimbo Y, Robinson HPC, Kawana A (1993). Simultaneous measurement of intracellular calcium and electrical activity from patterned neural networks in culture. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 40:804-810.
103. Johnson KO, Popovic D, Riso RR, Koris M, Van Doren C, Kantor C (1995). Perspectives on the role of afferent signals in control of motor neuroprostheses. Med Eng Phys 17:481-496.
104. Katsuki M, Atsuka Y, Hirayama T (1997). Reinnervation of denervated muscle by transplantation of fetal spinal cord to transected sciatic nerve in the rat. Brain Res 771:31-36.
105. Kelly MF, Parker PA, Scott RN (1990). The application of neural networks to myoelectric signal analysis: a preliminary study. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 37:221-230.
106. Kennedy PR (1989). The cone electrode: a long-term electrode that records from neurites grown onto its recording surface. J Neurosci Methods 29:181-193.
107. Kern H, Hofer C, Mödlin M, Forstner C, Raschka-Högler D, Mayr W, Stöhr H (2002). Denervated muscles in humans: limitations and problems of currently used functional electrical stimulation training protocols. Artif Organs 26: 216-218.
108. Kiguchi K, Iwami K, Yasuda M, Watanabe K, Fukuda T (2003). An exoskeletal robot for human shoulder joint motion assist. IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatronics 8:125.
109. Kiguchi K, Kariya S, Watanabe K, Izumi K, Fukuda T (2001). An exoskeletal robot for human elbow motion support-sensor fusion, adaptation, and control. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern Part B: Cybernetics 31:353.
110. Kilgore KL (1997). An implanted upper-extremity neuroprosthesis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 79A:533-541.
111. Kilgore KL, Peckham PH, Keith MW, Montague FW, Hart RL, Gazdik MM, Bryden AM, Snyder SA, Stage TG (2003). Durability of implanted electrodes and leads in an upper-limb neuroprosthesis. J Rehabil Res Dev 40:457-468.
112. Kim C, Wise KD (1996). A 64-site multishank CMOS low-profile neural stimulating probe. IEEE J Solid State Circuits 31: 1230-1238.
113. Kipke DR, Vetter RJ, Williams JC, Hetke JF (2003). Silicon-substrate intracortical microelectrode arrays for long-term recording of neuronal spike activity in cerebral cortex. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 11:151-155.
114. Klinge PM, Groos S, Wewetzer K, Haastert K, Rosahl SK, Vafa MA, Hosseini H, Samii M, Brinker T (2001b). Regeneration of a transected nerve by transplantation of spinal cord encapsulated in a vein. Neuroreport 12:1271-1275.
115. Klinge PM, Vafa MA, Brinker T, Brandes A, Walter GF, Stieglitz T, Samii M, Wewetzer K (2001a). Molecular characterization of axonal sprouting and tissue changes after long-term implantation of a polyimide sieve electrode to the transected adult rat sciatic nerve. Biomaterials 22:2333-2343.
116. Kobetic R, Triolo JR, Uhlir JP, Bieri C, Wibowo M, Polando G, Masolais EB, Davis JA Jr, Ferguson KA, Sharma M (1999). Implanted functional electrical stimulation system for mobility in paraplegia: a follow-up case report. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 7:390-398.
117. Kovacs GTA, Storment CW, Halks-Miller M, Belczynski CR, Della Santina CC, Lewis ER, Maluf NI (1994). Silicon-substrate microelectrode array for parallel recording of neural activity in peripheral and cranial nerves. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 41:567-577.
118. Kovacs GTA, Storment CW, Rosen JM (1992). Regeneration microelectrode array for peripheral nerve recording and stimulation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 39:893-902.
119. Krarup C, Loeb G, Pezeshkpour GH (1989). Conduction studies in peripheral cat nerve using implanted electrodes: III. The effects of prolonged constriction of the distal nerve segment. Muscle Nerve 12:915-928.
120. Krylow AM, Sandercock TG, Rymer WZ (1995). Muscle models. In: The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks. Arbib MA (Ed). MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 609-613.
121. Kuiken TA, Dumanian GA, Lipschutz RD, Miller LA, Stubblefield KA (2004). The use of targeted muscle reinnervation for improved myoelectric prosthesis control in a bilateral shoulder disarticulation amputee. Prosthet Orthot Int 28:245-253.
122. Lago N, Ceballos D, Rodríguez FJ, Stieglitz T, Navarro X (2005). Long term assessment of axonal regeneration through polyimide regenerative electrodes to interface the peripheral nerve. Biomaterials 26:2021-2031.
123. Larsen JO, Thomsen M, Haugland M, Sinkjaer T (1998). Degeneration and regeneration in rabbit peripheral nerve with long-term nerve cuff electrode implant: a stereological study of myelinated and unmyelinated axons. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 96:365-378.
124. Lauer RT, Peckham PH, Kilgore KL, Heetderks WJ (2000). Applications of cortical signals to neuroprosthetic control: a critical review. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 8:205-208.
125. Lawrence SM, Dhillon GS, Horch KW (2003). Fabrication and characteristics of an implantable, polymer-based, intrafascicular electrode. J Neurosci Methods 131:9-26.
126. Lawrence SM, Dhillon GS, Jensen W, Yoshida K, Horch KW (2004). Acute peripheral nerve recording characteristics of polymer-based longitudinal intrafascicular electrodes. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 12:345-348.
127. Lawrence SM, Larsen JO, Horch KW, Riso R, Sinkjaer T (2002). Long-term biocompatibility of implanted polymer-based intrafascicular electrodes. J Biomed Mater Res 63:501-506.
128. Lefurge T, Goodall E, Horch K, Stensaas L, Schoenberg A (1991). Chronically implanted intrafascicular recording electrodes. Ann Biomed Eng 19:197-207.
129. Leventhal DK, Durand DM (2003). Subfascicle stimulation selectivity with the flat interface nerve electrode. Ann Biomed Eng 31:643-652.
130. Leventhal DK, Durand DM (2004). Chronic measurement of the stimulation selectivity of the flat interface nerve electrode. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 51:1649-1658.
131. Liberson WT, Holmquest HJ, Scott D, Dow A (1961). Functional electrotherapy: stimulation of the peroneal nerve synchronized with the swing phase of hemiplegic patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 42:101-105.
132. Llinás R, Nicholson C, Johnson K (1973). Implantable monolithic wafer recording electrodes for neurophysiology. In: Brain Unit Activity During Behaviour. Phillips MI (Ed). Charles Thomas, IL, pp 105-110.
133. Loeb GE, Marks WB, Beatty PG (1977). Analysis and microelectrode design of tubular electrode arrays intended for chronic, multiple single-unit recording from captured nerve fibres. Med Biol Eng Comput 15:195-201.
134. Loeb GE, Peck RA (1996). Cuff electrodes for chronic stimulation and recording of peripheral nerve. J Neurosci Methods 64:95-103.
135. Loeb GE, Peck RA, Moore WH, Hood K (2001). BION system for distributed neural prosthetic interfaces. Med Eng Phys 23: 9-18.
136. Mackert BM (2004). Magnetoneurography: theory and application to peripheral nerve disorders. Clin Neurophysiol 115:2667-2676.
137. Malagodi MS, Horch KW, Schoenberg AA (1989). An intrafascicular electrode for recording of action potentials in peripheral nerves. Ann Biomed Eng 17:397-410.
138. Malmstrom JA, McNaughton TG, Horch KW (1998). Recording properties and biocompatibility of chronically implanted polymer-based intrafascicular electrodes. Ann Biomed Eng 26:1055-1064.
139. Mannard A, Stein RB, Charles D (1974). Regeneration electrode units: implants for recording from single peripheral nerve fibers in freely moving animals. Science 183:547-549.
140. McCreery D, Pikov V, Lossinsky A, Bullara L, Agnew W (2004). Arrays for chronic functional microstimulation of the lumbo-sacral spinal cord. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 12:195-207.
141. McLachlan RS (1997). Vagus nerve stimulation for intractable epilepsy: a review. J Clin Neurophysiol 14:358-368.
142. McNaughton TG, Horch KW (1994). Action potential classification with dual channel intrafascicular electrodes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 41:609-616.
143. McNaughton TG, Horch KW (1996). Metallized polymer fibers as leadwires and intrafascicular microelectrodes. J Neurosci Methods 70:103-110.
144. McNeal DR (1976). Analysis of a model for excitation of myelinated nerve. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 23:329-337.
145. Mensinger AF, Anderson DJ, Buchko CJ, Johnson MA, Martin DC, Tresco PA, Silver RB, Highstein SM (2000). Chronic recording of regenerating VIIIth nerve axons with a sieve electrode. J Neurophysiol 83:611-615.
146. Meyer JU (2002). The retina implant - a BIOMEMS challenge. Sensors Actuators A 97-98:1-9.
147. Micera S, Jensen W, Sepulveda S, Riso RR, Sinkjaer T (2001a). Neuro-fuzzy extraction of angular information from muscle afferents for ankle control during standing in paraplegic subjects: an animal model. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 48: 787-794.
148. Micera S, Sabatini AM, Dario P (1998). An algorithm for detecting the onset of muscle contraction by EMG signal processing. Med Eng Phys 20:211-215.
149. Micera S, Sabatini AM, Dario P, Rossi B (1999). A hybrid approach for EMG pattern analysis for classification of arm movements. Med Eng Phys 21:303-311.
150. Micera S, Vannozzi G, Sabatini AM, Dario P (2001b). Improving detection of muscle activation intervals. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag 20:38-46.
151. Mortimer JT, Kaufman D, Roessmann U (1980). Intramuscular electrical stimulation: tissue damage. Ann Biomed Eng 8:235-244.
152. Najafi K, Hetke JF (1990). Strength characterization of silicon microprobes in neurophysiological tissues. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 37:474-481.
153. Najafi K, Wise KD (1986). An implantable multielectrode array with on-chip signal processing. IEEE J Solid State Circuits 21:1035-1044.
154. Najafi K, Wise KD, Mochizuki T (1985). A high-yield IC-compatible multichannel recording array. IEEE Trans Electron Devices 32:1206-1211.
155. Nannini N, Horch K (1991). Muscle recruitment with intrafascicular electrodes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 38:769-776.
156. Naples GG, Mortimer JT, Yuen TGH (1990). Overview of peripheral nerve electrode design and implantation. In: Neural Prostheses: Fundamental Studies, Biophysics and Bioengineering Series. Agnew WF, McCreery DB (Eds). Prentice Hall, New Jersey, pp 107-144.
157. Nashold BS, Goldner JL, Mullen JB, Bright DS (1982). Long-term pain control by direct peripheral nerve stimulation. J Bone Joint Surg Am 64A:1-10.
158. Navarro X, Calvet S, Butí M, Gómez N, Cabruja E, Garrido P, Villa R, Valderrama E (1996). Peripheral nerve regeneration through microelectrode arrays based on silicon technology. Restor Neurol Neurosci 9:151-160.
159. Navarro X, Calvet S, Rodriguez FJ, Stieglitz T, Blau C, Butí M, Valderrama E, Meyer JU (1998). Stimulation and recording from regenerated peripheral nerves through polyimide sieve electrodes. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2:91-101.
160. Navarro X, Valderrama E, Stieglitz T, Schüttler M (2001). Selective fascicular stimulation of the rat sciatic nerve with mutipolar polyimide cuff electrodes. Restor Neurol Neurosci 18:9-21.
161. Negredo P, Castro J, Lago N, Navarro X, Avendano C (2004). Differential growth of axons from sensory and motor neurons through a regenerative electrode: a stereological, retrograde tracer, and functional study in the rat. Neuroscience 128: 605-615.
162. Nelson HE Jr, Smith MB, Bowman BR, Waters RL (1980). Electrode effectiveness during transcutaneous motor stimulation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 61:73-77.
163. Nicolaidis SC, Williams HB (2001). Muscle preservation using an implantable electrical system after nerve injury and repair. Microsurgery 21:241-247.
164. Nicolelis MA (2001). Actions from thoughts. Nature 409:403-407.
165. Nielson KD, Watts C, Clark WK (1976). Peripheral nerve injury from implantation of chronic stimulating electrodes for pain control. Surg Neurol 5:51-53.
166. Nishikawa D, Ishikawa Y, Yu W, Maruishi M, Watanabe I, Yokoi H, Mano Y, Kakazu Y (2000). On-line learning based EMG prosthetic hand. Electrophysiology and Kinesiology, pp 575-580.
167. Nishikawa D, Yu W, Yokoi H, Kakazu Y (1999). EMG prosthetic hand controller discriminating ten motions using real-time learning method. IEEE IROS'99, Kyongju, South Korea, pp 1592-1597.
168. Nordhausen CT, Maynard EM, Normann RA (1996). Single unit recording capabilities of a 100 microelectrode array. Brain Res 726:129-140.
169. Normann RA, Maynard EM, Rousche PJ, Warren DJ (1998). A neural interface for a cortical vision prosthesis. Vision Res 12:2577-2587.
170. Ochoa JL, Torebjörk JR (1983). Sensations evoked by intraneural microstimulation of single mechanoreceptor units innervating the human hand. J Physiol 342:633-654.
171. Onishi H, Yagi R, Akasaka K, Momose K, Ihashi K, Handa Y (2000). Relationship between EMG signals and force in human vastus lateralis muscle using multiple bipolar wire electrodes. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 10:59-67.
172. Patterson RP, Lockwood JS (1993). The influence of electrode size and type on surface stimulation of the quadriceps. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1:59-62.
173. Pattichis CS, Pattichis MS (1999). Time-scale analysis of motor unit action potentials. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 46:1320-1329.
174. Peckham HP, Keith MW (1992). Motor prostheses for restoration of upper extremity function. In: Neural Prostheses. Replacing Motor Function After Disease or Disability. Stein RB, Peckham PH, Popovic DB (Eds). Oxford University Press, New York, pp 162-187.
175. Perez-Orive J, Durand DM (2000). Modeling study of peripheral nerve recording selectivity. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 8:320-329.
176. Peters A, Palay SL, Webster HF (1991). The Fine Structure of the Nervous System: Neurons and Their Supporting Cells, 3rd Edn. Oxford University Press, New York.
177. Pfurtscheller G, Neuper C, Cuger C, Harkam W, Ramoser H, Schloegl A, Obermaier B, Pregenzer M (2000). Current trends in Graz Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) research. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 2:216-219.
178. Pine J, Tai Y-C, Buzsaki G, Bragin A, Carpi D (1994). The cultured neuron probe. Quarterly Progress Report, NIH-NINDS, Neural Prosthesis Program No. 4, NO1-NS-3-2393.
179. Popovic DB (1992). Functional electrical stimulation for lower extremities. In: Neural Prostheses Replacing Motor Function After Disease or Disability. In: Stein RB, Peckham PH, Popovic DB (Eds). Oxford University Press, New York, pp 233-251.
180. Popovic MB (2003). Control of neural prostheses for grasping and reaching. Med Eng Phys 12:41-50.
181. Popovic MR, Keller T, Morari M, Dietz V (1998). Neural prostheses for spinal cord injured subjects. J Bioworld 1:6-9.
182. Popovic D, Stein RB, Jovanovic K, Dai N, Kostov A, Armstrong WW (1993). Sensory nerve recording for closed-loop control to restore motor functions. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 400:1024-1031.
183. Prochazka A, Mushahwar VK, McCreery DB (2001). Neural prostheses. J Physiol 533:99-109.
184. Rainoldi A, Nazzaro M, Merletti R, Farina D, Caruso I, Gaudenti S (2000). Geometrical factors in surface EMG of the vastus medialis and lateralis muscles. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 10:327-336.
185. Rattay F (1990). Electrical Nerve Stimulation. Springer-Verlag, Wien.
186. Richardson RR, Miller JA, Reichert WM (1993). Polyimides as biomaterials: preliminary biocompatibility testing. Biomaterials 14:627-635.
187. Rijkhoff NJM (2004). Neuroprostheses to treat neurogenic bladder dysfunction: current status and future perspectives. Childs Nerv Syst 20:75-86.
188. Rijkhoff NJ, Wijkstra H, van Kerrebroeck PE, Debruyne FM (1997). Selective detrusor activation by electrical sacral nerve root stimulation in spinal cord injury. J Urol 157: 1504-1508.
189. Riso RR (1999). Strategies for providing upper extremity amputees with tactile and hand position feedback - moving closer to the bionic arm. Technol Health Care 7:401-409.
190. Roblee LS, Rose TL (1990). Electrochemical guidelines for selection of protocols and electrode materials for neural stimulation. In: Neural Prostheses: Fundamental Studies, Biophysics and Bioengineering Series. Agnew WF, McCreery DB (Eds). Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2: 26-66.
191. Rodríguez FJ, Ceballos D, Schüttler M, Valderrama E, Stieglitz T, Navarro X (2000). Polyimide cuff electrodes for peripheral nerve stimulation. J Neurosci Methods 98:105-118.
192. Rosen J, Brand M, Fuchs MB, Arcan M (2001). A myosignal-based powered exoskeleton system. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern - Part A Systems Humans 31.
193. Rosen JM, Grosser M, Hentz VR (1990). Preliminary experiments in nerve regeneration through laser-drilled holes in silicon chips. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2:89-102.
194. Rozman J, Sovinec B, Trlep M, Zorko B (1993). Multielectrode spiral cuff for ordered and reversed activation of nerve fibres. J Biomed Eng 15:113-120.
195. Rupp R, Gerner HJ (2004). Neuroprosthetics of the upper extremity - clinical application in spinal cord injury and future perspectives. Biomed Tech (Berl) 49:93-98.
196. Rutten WLC (2002). Selective electrical interfaces with the nervous system. Ann Rev Biomed Eng 4:407-452.
197. Rutten WLC, Smit JPA, Frieswijk TA, Bielen JA, Brouwer ALH, Buitenweg JR, Heida C (1999). Neuro-electronic interfacing with multielectrode arrays. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag 18:47-55.
198. Rutten WLC, Smit JPA, Rozijn TH, Meier JH (1995). 3D neuroelectronic interface devices for neuromuscular control: design studies and realisation steps. Biosens Bioelectron 10:141-153.
199. Santa-Cruz MC, Riso RR, Sepulveda F (2000). Evaluation of neural network parameters towards enhanced recognition of naturally evoked EMG for prosthetic hand grasp control. IFESS 2000, Aalborg, Denmark, pp 436-439.
200. Sauerwein D, Ingunza W, Fischer J, Madersbacher H, Polkey CE, Brindley GS, Colombel P, Teddy P (1990). Extradural implantation of sacral anterior root stimulators. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 53:681-684.
201. Schneider A, Stieglitz T (2004). Implantable flexible electrodes for functional electrical stimulation. Med Device Technol 15:16-18.
202. Shimojo M, Suzuki T, Namiki A, Saito T, Kunimoto M, Makino R, Ogawa H, Ishikawa M, Mabuchi K (2003). Development of a system for experiencing tactile sensation from a robot hand by electrically stimulating sensory nerve fiber. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp 1263-1270.
203. Singh J, Peck RA, Loeb GE (2001). Development of BIONs technology for functional electrical stimulation: hermetic packaging. Proceedings of the 23th Annual International Conference of IEEE Eng Med and Bio Soc.
204. Singh K, Richmond FJR, Leob GE (2000). Recruitment properties of intramuscular and nerve-trunk stimulating electrodes. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 8:276-285.
205. Sinkjaer T, Haugland M, Inmann A, Hansen M, Nielsen KD (2003). Biopotentials as command and feedback signals in functional electrical stimulation systems. Med Eng Phys 12:29-40.
206. Smit JP, Rutten WL, Boom HB (1999). Endoneural selective stimulating using wire-microelectrode arrays. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 7:399-412.
207. Sparto PJ, Parnianpour M, Barria EA, Jagadeesh JM (2000). Wavelet and short-time fourier transform analysis of electromyography for detection of back muscle fatigue. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 8:433-436.
208. Stanton-Hicks M, Salamon J (1997). Stimulation of the central and peripheral nervous system for the control of pain. J Clin Neurophysiol 14:46-62.
209. Stein RB, Nichols TR, Jhamandas J, Davis L, Charles D (1977). Stable long-term recordings from cat peripheral nerves. Brain Res 128:21-38.
210. Stein RB, Peckham PH, Popovic DP (1992). Neural Prostheses. Replacing Motor Function After Diseases or Disability. Oxford University Press, New York.
211. Stief CG, Sauerwein D, Thon WF, Allhoff EP, Jonas U (1992). The influence of anterior root stimulation (S2) in deafferented spinal cord injury men on cavernous electrical activity. J Urol 148:107-110.
212. Stieglitz T (2004). Considerations on surface and structural biocompatibility as prerequisite for long-term stability of neural prostheses. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 4:496-503.
213. Stieglitz T, Beutel H, Meyer J-U (1997). A flexible, light-weight multi-channel sieve electrode with integrated cables for interfacing regenerating peripheral nerves. Sensors Actuators 60:240-243.
214. Stieglitz T, Beutel H, Schuettler M, Meyer JU (2000). Micromachined, polyimide-based devices for flexible neural interfaces. Biomed Microdev 2:283-294.
215. Stieglitz T, Gross M (2002). Flexible BIOMEMS with electrode arrangements on front and back side as key component in neural prostheses and biohybrid systems. Sensors Actuators B 12:1-7.
216. Stieglitz T, Haberer W, Kammer S, Schanze T (2003). A simple model to investigate the stability of flexible micromachined retina stimulators. Proceedings of the 8th Annual International Conference of the International Functional Electrical Stimulation Society, pp 69-73.
217. Stieglitz T, Meyer JU (1997). Microtechnical interfaces to neurons. Microsyst Technol Chem Life Sci pp 131-162.
218. Stieglitz T, Ruf HH, Gross M, Schuettler M, Meyer J-U (2002). A biohybrid system to interface peripheral nerves after traumatic lesions: design of a high channel sieve electrode. Biosens Bioelectron 17:685-696.
219. Stieglitz T, Schüttler M, Koch KP (2004). Neural prostheses in clinical applications - trends from precision mechanics towards biomedical microsystems in neurological rehabilitation. Biomed Tech (Berl) 49:72-77.
220. Strege DW, Cooney WP, Wood MB, Johnson SJ, Metcalf BJ (1994). Chronic peripheral nerve pain treated with direct electrical nerve stimulation. J Hand Surg [Am] 19:37-43.
221. Sweeney JD, Ksienski DA, Mortimer JT (1990). A nerve cuff technique for selective excitation of peripheral nerve regions. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 37:706-715.
222. Takeuchi S, Suzuki T, Mabuchi K, Fujita H (2004). 3D flexible multi-channel neural probe array. J Micromech Microeng 14:104-107.
223. Tatic-Lucic S, Tai Y-C, Wright JA, Pine J, Denison T (1993). Silicon-micromachined neurochips for in vitro studies of cultured neural networks. Proceedings of the International Conference on Solid State Sensors and Actuators, pp 943-946.
224. Taylor PN, Burridge JH, Dunkerley AL, Wood DE, Norton JA, Singleton C, Swain D (1999). Clinical use of the Odstock dropped foot stimulation: its effect on the speed and effort of walking. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 80:1577-1583.
225. Taylor PN, Tromans AM, Harris KR, Swain ID (2002). Electrical stimulation of abdominal muscles for control of blood pressure and augmentation of cough in a C3/4 level tetraplegic. Spinal Cord 40:34-36.
226. Thomas CK, Erb DE, Grumbles M, Bunge RP (2000). Embryonic cord transplants in peripheral nerve restore skeletal muscle function. J Neurophysiol 84:591-595.
227. Thomas CA Jr, Springer PA, Loeb GE, Berwald-Netter Y, Okun LM (1972). A miniature microelectrode array to monitor the bioelectric activity of cultured cells. Exp Cell Res 74:61-66.
228. Torebjörk HE, Vallbo AB, Ochoa JL (1987). Intraneural microstimulation in man. Its relation to specificity of tactile sensations. Brain 110:1509-1529.
229. Triolo RJ, Bieri C, Uhlir J, Kobetic R, Scheiner A, Marsolais EB (1996). Implanted FNS systems for assisted standing and transfers for individuals with cervical spinal cord injuries. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 77:1119-1128.
230. Tyler DJ, Durand DM (1994). Interfascicular electrical stimulation for selectively activating axons. IEEE-EMBS Mag 13: 575-583.
231. Tyler DJ, Durand DM (1997). A slowly penetrating interfascicular nerve electrode for selective activation of peripheral nerves. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 5:51-61.
232. Tyler DJ, Durand DM (2002). Functionally selective peripheral nerve stimulation with a flat interface nerve electrode. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 10:294-303.
233. Tyler DJ, Durand DM (2003). Chronic response of the rat sciatic nerve to the flat interface nerve electrode. Ann Biomed Eng 31:633-642.
234. Upshaw B, Sinkjaer T (1998). Digital signal processing algorithms for the detection of afferent nerve activity recorded from cuff electrodes. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 6:172-181.
235. Vallbo A, Hagbarth K, Torebjörk H, Wallin G (1979). Somatosensory, proprioceptive, and sympathetic activity in human peripheral nerves. Physiol Rev 59:919-957.
236. Van Kerrebroeck PE, Koldewijn EL, Debruyne FM (1993). Worldwide experience with the Finetech-Brindley sacral anterior root stimulator. Neurourol Urodyn 12:497-503.
237. Veltink PH, van Alste JA, Boom HB (1989). Multielectrode intrafascicular and extraneural stimulation. Med Biol Eng Comput 27:19-24.
238. Veraart C, Grill WM, Mortimer JT (1993). Selective control of muscle activation with a multipolar nerve cuff electrode. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 40:640-653.
239. Vogt M, Hauptmann R (1995). Plasma-deposited passivation layers for moisture and water protection. Surface Coatings Technol 74-75:676-681.
240. Wallman L, Zhang Y, Laurell T, Danielsen N (2001). The geometric design of micromachined silicon sieve electrodes influences functional nerve regeneration. Biomaterials 22: 1187-1193.
241. Walter JS, Griffith P, Sweeney J, Scarpine V, Bidnar M, McLane J, Robinson C (1997). Multielectrode nerve cuff stimulation of the median nerve produces selective movements in a raccoon animal model. J Spinal Cord Med 20:233-243.
242. Warwick K, Gasson M, Hutt B, Goodhew I, Kyberd P, Andrews B, Teddy P, Shad A (2003). The application of implant technology for cybernetic systems. Arch Neurol 60:1369-1373.
243. Waters RL, McNeal DR, Faloon W, Clifford B (1985). Functional electrical stimulation of the peroneal nerve for hemiplegia: long-term clinical follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Am 67:792-793.
244. Weber DJ, Stein RB, Chan KM, Loeb GE, Richmond FJ, Rolf R, James K, Chong SL, Thompson AK, Misiaszek J (2004). Functional electrical stimulation using microstimulators to correct foot drop: a case study. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 82:784-792.
245. Weiland JD, Anderson DJ, Humayun MS (2002). In vitro electrical properties for iridium oxide versus titanium nitride stimulation electrodes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 49: 1574-1579.
246. Wells MR, Vaidya U, Ricci JL, Christie C (2001). A neuromuscular platform to extract electrophysiological signals from lesioned nerves: a technical note. J Rehabil Res Dev 38:385-390.
247. Wilkinson DW, Dow JAT, Curtis ASG, Connolly P, Clark P (1987). Topographical control of cell behaviour. Development 99:439-448.
248. Wuolle KS, Van Doren CL, Bryden AM, Peckham PH, Keith MW, Kilgore KL, Grill JH (1999). Satisfaction with and usage of a hand neuroprosthesis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 80:206-213.
249. Yoon TH, Hwang EJ, Shin DY, Park SI, Oh SJ, Jung SC, Shin HC, Kim SJ (2000). A micromachined silicon depth probe for multichannel neural recording. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 47:1082-1087.
250. Yoshida K, Horch K (1993). Selective stimulation of peripheral nerve fibers using dual intrafascicular electrodes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 40:492-494.
251. Yoshida K, Jovanovic K, Stein RB (2000). Intrafascicular electrodes for stimulations and recording from mudpuppy spinal roots. J Neurosci Methods 96:47-55.
252. Yoshida K, Stein RB (1999). Characterization of signals and noise rejection with bipolar longitudinal intrafascicular electrodes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 46:226-234.
253. Zajac FE (1989). Muscle and tendon: properties, models, scaling, and application to biomechanics and motor control. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 17:359-411.
254. Zardoshti-Kermani M, Wheeler BC, Badie K, Hashemi RM (1995). EMG feature evaluation for movement control of upper extremity prostheses. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 3:324-333.
255. Zecca M, Micera S, Carrozza MC, Dario P (2002). On the control of multifunctional prosthetic hands by processing the electromyographic signal. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 30:459-485.
256. Zhao Q, Drott J, Laurell T, Wallman L, Lindström K, Bjursten LM, Lundborg G, Montelius L, Danielsen N (1997). Rat sciatic nerve regeneration through a micromachined silicon chip. Biomaterials 18:75-80.
257. Zwarts MJ, Stegeman DF (2003). Multichannel surface EMG: basic aspects and clinical utility. Muscle Nerve 28:1-17.