Update of neuropathology and neurological recovery after traumatic brain injury

Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 76-94

  Povlishock, John T ^a,d   Katz, Douglas I ^b,c  

^a VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c Braintree Rehabilitation Hospital   (United States)

^d VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Coma; Diffuse and focal brain injury; Diffuse axonal injury; Metabolic change; Neuronal cell body damage; Posttraumatic amnesia; Recovery; Traumatic brain injury

Indexed keywords

AMNESIA; AXONAL INJURY; BRAIN; BRAIN ATROPHY; BRAIN INJURY; BRAIN METABOLISM; BRAIN PARENCHYMA; CELL DAMAGE; CELL DEGENERATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; COMA; CONFUSION; CONVALESCENCE; DEAFFERENTATION; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DIFFUSE AXONAL INJURY; DIFFUSE BRAIN INJURY; DISEASE COURSE; FOCAL BRAIN INJURY; LONG TERM CARE; METABOLIC DISORDER; MULTIFOCAL AXONAL INJURY; NEUROLOGICAL RECOVERY; NEURONAL CELL BODY DAMAGE; NEUROPATHOLOGY; PATHOLOGY; POSTCONFUSIONAL RESTORATION; POSTTRAUMATIC AMNESIA; POSTTRAUMATIC CONFUSION; REVIEW; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY; UNCONSCIOUSNESS;

EID: 13844284198     PISSN: 08859701     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00001199-200501000-00008     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Murray CJL, Lopez AD. Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990-2020: Global Burden of Disease Study. The Lancet. 1997;349(9064):1498-1504.
2. Graham DI, Gennarelli TA, McIntosh TK. Trauma. Greenfields Neuropathol. 2002;14:823-898.
3. Raghupathi R, Graham DI, McIntosh TK. Apoptosis after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2000;17(10):927-938.
4. Raghupathi R. Cell death mechanisms following traumatic brain injury. Brain Pathol. 2004;14:215-222.
5. Yakovlev AG, Faden AI. Mechanisms of neural cell death: implications for development of neuroprotective treatment strategies. NeuroRx® J Am Soc Exp NeuroTher. 2004;1:5-16.
6. Kotapka MJ, Graham DI, Adams JH, Gennarelli TA. Hippocampal pathology in fatal non-missile human head injury. Acta Neuropathol. 1992;83:530-534.
7. Ross DT, Graham DI, Adams JH. Selective loss of neurons from the thalamic reticular nucleus following severe human head injury. J Neurotrauma. 1993;10:151-165.
8. Gennarelli TA. Animate models of human head injury. J Neurotrauma. 1994;11:357-368.
9. Dietrich WD, Alonso O, Halley M. Early microvascular and neuronal consequences of traumatic brain injury: a light and electron microscopic study in rats. J Neurotrauma. 1994;11:289-301.
10. Hicks RR, Soares HD, Smith DH, McIntosh TK. Temporal and spatial characterization of neuronal injury following lateral fluid-percussion brain injury in the at. Acta Neuropathol. 1996;91:236-246.
11. Smith F, Raghupathi R, Mackinnon M-A, et al. TUNEL-positive staining of surface contusions after fatal head injury in man. Acta Neuropathol. 2000;100:537-545.
12. Clark RSB, Chen J, Watkins SC, et al. Apoptosis-suppressor gene bcl-2 expression after traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurosci. 1997;17:9172-9182.
13. Colicos MA, Dash PK. Apoptotic morphology of dentate gyrus granule cells following experimental cortical impact injury in rats: possible role in spatial memory deficits. Brain Res. 1996;739:120-131.
14. Fox GB, Fan L, Levasseur RA, Faden AI. Sustained sensory/motor and cognitive deficits with neuronal apoptosis following controlled cortical impact brain injury in the mouse. J Neurotrauma. 1998;15:599-613.
15. 1 after cortical impact in rat brain. Brain Res. 1999;818:23-33.
16. Newcomb JK, Zhao X, Pike BR, Hayes RL. Temporal profile of apoptotic-like changes in neurons and astrocytes following controlled cortical impact injury in the rat. Exp Neurol. 1999;158:76-88.
17. Shaw K, Mackinnon M-A, Raghupathi R, Saatman KE, McIntosh TK, Graham DI. TUNEL-positive staining in white and gray matter after fatal head injury in man. Clin Neuropathol. 2001;20:106-112.
18. Williams S, Raghupathi R, Mackinnon M-A, McIntosh TK, Saatman KE, Graham DI. In situ DNA fragmentation occurs in white matter up to 12 months after head injury in man. Acta Neuropathol. 2001;102:581-590.
19. Singleton RH, Povlishock JT. Identification and characterization of heterogeneous neuronal injury and death in regions of diffuse brain injury: evidence for multiple independent injury phenotypes. J Neurosci. 2004;24(14):3543-3553.
20. Giehl KM, Tetzlaff W. BDNF and NT-3, but not NGF, prevent axotomy-induced death of rat corticospinal neurons in vivo. Eur J Neurosci. 1996;8:1167-1175.
21. Villegas-Perez MP, Vidal-Sanz M, Rasminsky M, Bray GM, Aguayo AJ. Rapid and protracted phases of retinal ganglion cell loss follow axotomy in the optic nerve of adult rats. J Neurobiol. 1993;24:23-36.
22. Barron KD. Comparative observations on the cytologic reactions of central and peripheral nerve cells to axotomy. In: Kao CC, Bunge RP, Reier PJ, eds. Spinal Cord Reconstruction. New York: Raven; 1983:7-74.
23. Singleton RH, Zhu J, Stone JR, Povlishock JT. Traumatically induced axotomy adjacent to the soma does not result in acute neuronal death. J Neurosci. 2002;22(3):791-802.
24. Smith DH, Meaney DF. Axonal damage in traumatic brain injury. The Neuroscientist. 2000;6(6):483-495.
25. Povlishock JT, Christman CW. Diffuse axonal injury. In: Waxman SG, Kocsis J, Stys P, eds. The Axon. New York: Oxford University Press; 1995:504-529.
26. Povlishock JT, Jenkins LW. Are the pathobiological changes evoked by traumatic brain injury immediate and irreversible? Brain Pathol. 1995;5:415-426.
27. Povlishock JT, Stone JR. Traumatic axonal injury. Head Trauma Basic Preclin Clin Dir. 2001;13:281-302.
28. Smith DH, Meaney DF, Shull WH. Diffuse axonal injury in head trauma. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2003;18(4):307-316.
29. Blumbergs PC, Scott G, Manavis J, Wainwright H, Simpson D, McLean AJ. Topography of axonal injury as defined by amyloid precursor protein and the sector scoring method in mild and severe closed head injury. J Neurotrauma. 1995;12(4):565-572.
30. Graham DI, McIntosh TK, Maxwell WL, Nicoll JAR. Recent advances in neurotrauma. J Neuropath Exp Neurol. 2000;59(8):641-651.
31. Pettus EH, Christman CW, Giebel ML, Povlishock JT. Traumatically induced altered membrane permeability: its relationship to traumatically induced reactive axonal change. J Neurotrauma. 1994;11(5):507-522.
32. Maxwell WL, Povlishock JT, Graham DL. A mechanistic analysis of nondisruptive axonal injury: a review. J Neurotrauma. 1997;14(7):419-440.
33. Povlishock JT, Becker DP, Cheng CL, Vaughan GW. Axonal change in minor head injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1983;42(3):225-242.
34. Grady MS, McLaughlin MR, Christman CW, Valadka AB, Fligner CL, Povlishock JT. The use of antibodies targeted against the neurofilament subunits for the detection of diffuse axonal injury in humans. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1993;52(2):143-152.
35. Christman CW, Grady MS, Walker SA, Holloway KL, Povlishock JT. Ultrastructural studies of diffuse axonal injury in humans. J Neurotrauma. 1994;11(2):173-186.
36. Büki A, Siman R, Trojanowski JQ, Povlishock JT. The role of calpain-mediated spectrin proteolysis in traumatically induced axonal injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1999;58(4):365-375.
37. Büki A, Okonkwo DO, Wang KK, Povlishock JT. Cytochrome c release and caspase activation in traumatic axonal injury. J Neurosci. 2000;20(8):2825- 2834.
38. Okonkwo DO, Büki A, Siman R, Povlishock JT. Cyclosporin A limits calcium-induced axonal damage following traumatic brain injury. Neuroreport. 1999;10(2):353-358.
39. Koizumi H, Povlishock JT. Posttraumatic hypothermia in the treatment of axonal damage in an animal model of traumatic axonal injury. J Neurosurg. 1998;89(2):303-309.
40. Büki A, Koizumi H, Povlishock JT. Moderate posttraumatic hypothermia decreases early calpain-mediated proteolysis and concomitant cytoskeletal compromise in traumatic axonal injury. Exp Neurol. 1999;159(1):319-328.
41. Büki A, Okonkwo DO, Povlishock JT. Postinjury cyclosporine A administration limits axonal damage and disconnection in traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 1999;16(6):511-521.
42. Singleton RH, Stone JR, Okonkwo DO, Pellicane AJ, Povlishock JT. The immunophilin ligand FK506 attenuates axonal injury in an impact-acceleration model of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2001;18(6):607-614.
43. Suehrio E, Singleton RH, Stone JR, Povlishock JT. The immunophilin ligand FK506 attenuates the axonal damage associated with rapid rewarming following posttraumatic hypothermia. Exp Neurol. 2001;172(1):199-210.
44. Okonkwo DO, Povlishock JT. An intrathecal bolus of cyclosporin A before injury preserves mitochondrial integrity and attenuates axonal disruption in traumatic brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1999;19:443-451.
45. Stone JR, Singleton RH, Povlishock JT. Intra-axonal neurofilament compaction does not evoke local axonal swelling in all traumatically injured axons. Exp Neurol. 2001;172(2):320-331.
46. Wolf JA, Stys PK, Lusardi T, Meaney D, Smith DH. Traumatic axonal injury induces calcium influx modulated by tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium channels. J Neurosci. 2001;21(6):1923-1930.
47. Iwata A, Stys PK, Wolf JA, et al. Traumatic axonal injury induces proteolytic cleavage of the voltage-gated sodium channels modulated by tetrodotoxin and protease inhibitors. J Neurosci. 2004;24(19): 4605-4613.
48. Reeves TM, Phillips LL, Walker SA, Povlishock JT. Unmyelinated axons of the corpus callosum show selective functional and structural changes after injury and FK506 treatment. J Neurotrauma. 2004;9:1324.
49. Lamantia AS, Rakic P. Cytological and quantitative characteristics of four cerebral commissures in the rhesus monkey. J Comp Neurol. 1990;291:520-537.
50. Povlishock JT, Erb DE, Astruc J. Axonal response to traumatic brain injury: reactive axonal change, deafferentation, and neuroplasticity. J Neurotrauma. 1992;9(suppl 1):S189-S200.
51. Erb DE, Povlishock JT. Neuroplasticity following traumatic brain injury: a study of GABAergic terminal loss and recovery in the cat dorsal lateral vestibular nucleus. Exp Brain Res. 1991;83(2):253-267.
52. Phillips LL, Reeves TM. Interactive pathology following traumatic brain injury modifies hippocampal plasticity. Restorative Neurol Neurosci. 2001;19:213-235.
53. Phillips LL, Lyeth BG, Hamm RJ, Povlishock JT. Combined fluid percussion brain injury and entorhinal cortical lesion: a model for assessing the interaction between neuroexcitation and deafferentation. J Neurotrauma. 1994;11(6):641-656.
54. Reeves TM, Prins ML, Zhu JP, Povlishock JT, Philips L.L. Matrix metalloproteinase inhibition alters functional and structural correlates of deafferentation-induced sprouting in the dentate gyrus. J Neurosci. 2003;23(32):10182-10189.
55. Hurley RA, McGowan JC, Arfanakis K, Taber KH. Traumatic axonal injury: novel insights into evolution and identification. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2004;16:1-7.
56. Yoshino A, Hovda DA, Kawamata T, Katayama Y, Becker DP. Hippocampal CA3 lesion prevents post-concussive metabolic dysfunction in CA1. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1992;12:996-1006.
57. Hovda DA. Metabolic dysfunction. In: Narayan R, Willberger J, Povlishock J, eds. Neurotrauma. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc; 1996:1459-1478.
58. Hillered L, Vespa PM, Hovda DA. Translational neurochemical research in acute human brain injury: the current status and potential future for cerebral microdialysis. J Neurotrauma. 2005;22(1):1-34.
59. Povlishock JT. Pathophysiology of neural injury: therapeutic opportunities and challenges. Clin Neurosurg. 2000;46:113-126. Proceedings of the Congress of Neurological Surgeons.
60. Tolias CM, Bullock MR. Critical appraisal of neuroprotection trials in head injury: what have we learned? NeuroRx® J Am Soc Exp NeuroTher. 2004;1:71-79.
61. Bullock R, Zauner A, Woodward JJ, et al. Factors affecting excitatory amino acid release following severe human head injury. J Neurosurg. 1998;89:507-518.
62. Alessandri B, Doppenberg E, Bullock R, et al. Glucose and lactate metabolism after severe human head injury: influence of excitatory neurotransmitters and injury type. Acta Neurochir. 1999;75(suppl 1):21-24.
63. Alessandri B, Doppenberg E, Zauner, et al. Evidence for time-dependent glutamate-mediated glycolysis in head-injured patients: a microdialysis study. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien). 1999;75:25-28.
64. Elting JW, Sulter GA, Kaste M, et al. AMPA antagonist ZK200775 in patients with acute ischemic stroke: possible glial cell toxicity detected by monitoring of S-100B serum levels. Stroke. 2002;33:2813-2818.
65. Yoshino A, Hovda DA, Kawamata T, Katayama Y, Becker DP. Dynamic changes in local cerebral glucose utilization following cerebral concussion in rats: evidence of a hyper- and subsequent hypometabolic state. Brain Res. 1991;561:106-119.
66. Kuroda Y, Inglis FM, Miller JD, McCullouch J, Graham DI, Bullock R. Transient glucose hypermetabolism after acute subdural hematoma in the rat. J Neurosurg. 1992;76:471-477.
67. Ginsberg MD, Zhao W, Alonso OF, Loor-Estades JY, Dietrich WD, Busto R. Uncoupling of local cerebral glucose metabolism and blood flow after acute fluid-percussion injury in rats. Am J Physiol. 1997;272:H2859-H2868.
68. Hayes RL, Katayama Y, Jenkins LW, et al. Regional rates of glucose utilization in the cat following concussive head injury. J Neurotrauma. 1988;5121-5137.
69. Bergsneider M, Hovda DA, Shalmon E, et al. Cerebral hyperglycolysis following severe traumatic brain injury in humans: a positron emission tomography study. J Neurosurg. 1997;86:241-251.
70. Bergsneider M, Hovda D, Lee S, et al. Dissociation of cerebral glucose metabolism and level of consciousness during the period of metabolic depression following human traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2000;17(5):389-401.
71. Bergsneider M, Hovda DA, McArthur DL, et al. Metabolic recovery following human traumatic brain injury based on FDG-PET: time course and relationship to neurological disability. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2001;16:135-148.
72. Wu H-M, Huang S-C, Hattori N, et al. Selective metabolic reduction in gray matter acutely following human traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2004;21(2):149-161.
73. Vespa P, McArthur DL, Alger J, et al. Regional heterogeneity of post-traumatic brain metabolism as studied by microdialysis, magnetic resonance spectroscopy and positron emission tomography. Brain Pathol. 2004;14:210-214.
74. 18F-FDG kinetics in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Nucl Med. 2004;45(5): 775-783.
75. Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, Klauber MR, et al. The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. J Trauma. 1993;34(2): 216-222.
76. Marmarou A. Increased intracranial pressure in head injury and influence of blood volume. J Neurotrauma. 1992;9(suppl 1):S327-S332.
77. Katz DI. Neuropathology and neurobehavioral recovery from closed head injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1992;7(2):1-15.
78. Smith DH. Diffuse axonal injury in head trauma. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2003;18(4):307-316.
79. Blackman JA, Rice SA, Matsumoto JA, et al. Brain imaging as a predictor of early functional outcome following traumatic brain injury in children, adolescents, and young adults. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2003;18(6):493-503.
80. Grados MA, Slomine BS, Gerring JP, Vasa R, Bryan N, Denckla MB. Depth of lesion model in children and adolescents with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: use of SPGR MRI to predict severity and outcome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70(3):350-358.
81. Adams JH, Doyle D, Ford I, Gennarelli TA, Graham DI, McLellan DR. Diffuse axonal injury in head injury: definition, diagnosis and grading. Histopathology. 1989;15(1):49-59.
82. Bigler ED, Kurth S, Blatter D, Abildskov T. Day-of-injury CT as an index to pre-injury brain morphology: degree of post-injury degenerative changes identified by CT and MR neuroimaging. Brain Inj. 1993;7(2):125-134.
83. Anderson CV, Bigler ED. Ventricular dilation, cortical atrophy, and neuropsychological outcome following traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1995;7(1):42-48.
84. Takaoka M, Tabuse H, Kumura E, et al. Semiquantitative analysis of corpus callosum injury using magnetic resonance imaging indicates clinical severity in patients with diffuse axonal injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;73(3):289-293.
85. Bigler ED. Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging in traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2001;16(2):117-134.
86. Pike BR, Flint J, Dutta S, Johnson E, Wang KK, Hayes RL. Accumulation of non-erythroid alpha II-spectrin and calpain-cleaved alpha II-spectrin breakdown products in cerebrospinal fluid after traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurochem. 2001;78(6):1297-1306.
87. Pineda JA, Wang KK, Hayes RL. Biomarkers of proteolytic damage following traumatic brain injury. Brain Pathol. 2004;14(2):202-209.
88. Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. Lancet. 1974;ii:81-84.
89. Dikmen S, Machamer JE, Winn HR, Temkin NR. Neuropsychological outcome at 1-year post head injury. Neuropsychology. 1995;9:80-90.
90. Katz DI, Alexander MP. Traumatic brain injury. Predicting course of recovery and outcome for patients admitted to rehabilitation. Arch Neurol. 1994;51(7):661-670.
91. Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):564-574.
92. Adams JH, Graham DI, Murray LS, Scott G. Diffuse axonal injury due to nonmissile head injury in humans: an analysis of 45 cases. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):557-563.
93. Hammond FM, Hart T, Bushnik T, Corrigan JD, Sasser H. Change and predictors of change in communication, cognition, and social function between 1 and 5 years after traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2004;19(4):314-328.
94. Millis SR, Rosenthal M, Novack TA, et al. Long-term neuropsychological outcome after traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2001;16(4):343-355.
95. Oliver JH, Ponsford JL, Curran CA. Outcome following traumatic brain injury: a comparison between 2 and 5 years after injury. Brain Inj. 1996;10(11):841-848.
96. Corrigan JD, Smith-Knapp K, Granger CV. Outcomes in the first 5 years after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;79(3):298-305.
97. Medical aspects of the persistent vegetative state, 1: The Multi-Society Task Force on PVS. N Engl J Med. 1994;330(21):1499-1508.
98. Giacino JT, Ashwal S, Childs N, et al. The minimally conscious state: definition and diagnostic criteria. Neurology. 2002;58(3):349-353.
99. Katz DI, Otto RM, Agosti RM, MacKinnon DJ, Alexander MP. Factors affecting duration of posttraumatic amnesia after traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1999;5:139.
100. Hagen C, Malkmus D, Durham P. Levels of Cognitive Functioning. Downey, Calif: Ranchos Los Amigos Hospital; 1972.
101. Alexander MP. Traumatic brain injury. In: Benson DF, Blumer D, eds. Psychiatric Aspects of Neurologic Disease. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1982:251-278.
102. Stuss DT, Buckle BA. Traumatic brain injury: neuropsychological deficits and evaluation at different stages of recovery and in different pathological subtypes. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1992;7:40-49.
103. Temkin NR, Machamer JE, Dikmen SS. Correlates of functional status 3-5 years after traumatic brain injury with CT abnormalities. J Neurotrauma. 2003;20(3):229-241.
104. Dikmen SS, Machamer JE, Powell JM, Temkin NR. Outcome 3 to 5 years after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(10):1449-1457.
105. Dikmen SS, Ross BL, Machamer JE, Temkin NR. One year psychosocial outcome in head injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1995;1(1):67-77.
106. Dikmen SS, Temkin NR, Machamer JE, Holubkov AL, Fraser RT, Winn HR. Employment following traumatic head injuries. Arch Neurol. 1994;51(2):177-186.
107. Cifu DX, Keyser-Marcus L, Lopez E, et al. Acute predictors of successful return to work 1 year after traumatic brain injury: a multicenter analysis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1997;78(2):125-131.
108. Sherer M, Sander AM, Nick TG, High WM Jr, Malec JF, Rosenthal M. Early cognitive status and productivity outcome after traumatic brain injury: findings from the TBI model systems. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(2):183-192.
109. Levin HS, Gary HE Jr, Eisenberg HM, et al. Neurobehavioral outcome 1 year after severe head injury. Experience of the Traumatic Coma Data Bank. J Neurosurg. 1990;73(5):699-709.
110. Levin HS. Prediction of recovery from traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 1995;12(5):913-922.
111. Wallesch CW, Curio N, Galazky I, Jost S, Synowitz H. The neuropsychology of blunt head injury in the early postacute stage: effects of focal lesions and diffuse axonal injury. J Neurotrauma. 2001;18(1):11-20.
112. Whyte J, Cifu D, Dikmen S, Temkin N. Prediction of functional outcomes after traumatic brain injury: a comparison of 2 measures of duration of unconsciousness. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(10):1355-1359.
113. Levin HS. The Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test: a practical scale to assess cognition after head injury. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1979;167:675-684.
114. Dawson DR, Levine B, Schwartz ML, Stuss DT. Acute predictors of real-world outcomes following traumatic brain injury: a prospective study. Brain Inj. 2004;18(3):221-238.
115. Novack TA, Bush BA, Meythaler JM, Canupp K. Outcome after traumatic brain injury: pathway analysis of contributions from premorbid, injury severity, and recovery variables. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(3):300-305.
116. Bush BA, Novack TA, Malec JF, Stringer AY, Millis SR, Madan A. Validation of a model for evaluating outcome after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(12):1803-1807.
117. Shaw NA. The neurophysiology of concussion. Prog Neurobiol. 2002;67(4):281-344.
118. Katz DI, Alexander MP, Klein RB. Recovery of arm function in patients with paresis after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;79(5):488-493.
119. Katz DI, White DK, Alexander MP, Klein RB. Recovery of ambulation after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85(6):865-869.
120. Wilson JT, Hadley DM, Wiedmann KD, Teasdale GM. Neuropsychologlcal consequences of two patterns of brain damage shown by MRI in survivors of severe head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;59(3):328-331.
121. Geschwind N. Late changes in the nervous system: an overview. In: Stein D, Rosen J, Butters N, eds. Plasticity and Recovery of Function in the Central Nervous System. New York: Academic Press; 1974:467.
122. Katz DI, Alexander MP, Seliger GM, Bellas DN. Traumatic basal ganglia hemorrhage: clinicopathologic features and outcome. Neurology. 1989;39(7):897-904.
123. Wallesch CW, Curio N, Kutz S, Jost S, Bartels C, Synowitz H. Outcome after mild-to-moderate blunt head injury: effects of focal lesions and diffuse axonal injury. Brain Inj. 2001;15(5):401-412.
124. Levin HS, Zhang L, Dennis M, et al. Psychosocial outcome of TBI in children with unilateral frontal lesions. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004;10(3):305-316.
125. Ross BL, Temkin NR, Newell D, Dikmen SS. Neuropsychological outcome in relation to head injury severity. Contributions of coma length and focal abnormalities. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1994;73(5):341-347.
126. Lobato RD, Gomez PA, Alday R, et al. Sequential computerized tomography changes and related final outcome in severe head injury patients. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1997;139(5):385-391.
127. Gennarelli TA, Spielman GM, Langfitt TW, et al. Influence of the type of intracranial lesion on outcome from severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1982;56(1):26-32.
128. Englander J, Cifu DX, Wright JM, Black K. The association of early computed tomography scan findings and ambulation, self-care, and supervision needs at rehabilitation discharge and at 1 year after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(2):214-220.
129. van der Naalt J, Hew JM, van Zomeren AH, Sluiter WJ, Minderhoud JM. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in mild to moderate head injury: early and late imaging related to outcome. Ann Neurol. 1999;46(1):70-78.
130. Levin HS, Williams DH, Eisenberg HM, High WM Jr, Guinto FC Jr. Serial MRI and neurobehavioral findings after mild to moderate closed head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992;55(4):255-262.
131. Gentry LR, Godersky JC, Thompson B, Dunn VD. Prospective comparative study of intermediate-field MR and CT in the evaluation of closed head trauma. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1988;150(3):673-682.
132. Anderson CV, Bigler ED, Blatter DD. Frontal lobe lesions, diffuse damage, and neuropsychological functioning in traumatic brain-injured patients. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1995;17(6):900-908.
133. Wilson JT. The relationship between neuropsychological function and brain damage detected by neuroimaging after closed head injury. Brain Inj. 1990;4(4):349-363.
134. Wilson JTL. Neuroimaging and neuropsychological functioning following closed head injury: CT, MRI, and SPECT. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1992;7(2):29-39.
135. Molko N, Cohen L, Mangin JF, et al. Visualizing the neural bases of a disconnection syndrome with diffusion tensor imaging. J Cogn Neurosci. 2002;14(4):629-636.
136. Rugg-Gunn FJ, Symms MR, Barker GJ, Greenwood R, Duncan JS. Diffusion imaging shows abnormalities after blunt head trauma when conventional magnetic resonance imaging is normal. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70(4):530-533.
137. Avesani R, Cordioli Z, Salvi G. A computerized version of EBIS evaluation chart and its opportunities in the rehabilitation program of TBI patients. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2002;79:45-47.
138. Brooks WM, Friedman SD, Gasparovic C. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2001;16(2):149-164.
139. Garnett MR, Blamire AM, Rajagopalan B, Styles P, Cadoux-Hudson TA. Evidence for cellular damage in normal-appearing white matter correlates with injury severity in patients following traumatic brain injury: a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Brain. 2000;123(pt 7):1403-1409.
140. Friedman SD, Brooks WM, Jung RE, Hart BL, Yeo RA. Proton MR spectroscopic findings correspond to neuropsychological function in traumatic brain injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1998;19(10):1879-1885.
141. Friedman SD, Brooks WM, Jung RE, et al. Quantitative proton MRS predicts outcome after traumatic brain injury. Neurology. 1999;52(7):1384-1391.
142. Ariza M, Junque C, Mataro M, et al. Neuropsychological correlates of basal ganglia and medial temporal lobe NAA/Cho reductions in traumatic brain injury. Arch Neurol. 2004;61(4):541-544.
143. Ricker JH, Hillary FG, DeLuca J. Functionally activated brain imaging (O-15 PET and fMRI) in the study of learning and memory after traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2001;16(2):191-205.
144. Fontaine A, Azouvi P, Remy P, Bussel B, Samson Y. Functional anatomy of neuropsychological deficits after severe traumatic brain injury. Neurology. 1999;53(9):1963-1968.
145. Christodoulou C, DeLuca J, Ricker JH, et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of working memory impairment after traumatic brain injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;71(2):161-168.
146. Levine B, Cabeza R, McIntosh AR, Black SE, Grady CL, Stuss DT. Functional reorganization of memory after traumatic brain injury: a study with H(2)(15)0 positron emission tomography. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;73(2):173-181.