Adult Stem Cell Plasticity: Fact or Artifact?

Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology

Volumn 19, Issue , 2003, Pages 1-22

  Raff, Martin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cell fusion; Dedifferentiation; Regeneration; Reprogramming; Transdifferentiation

Indexed keywords

BRAIN CELL; CELL LINEAGE; CELL MATURATION; CELL RENEWAL; CELL SPECIFICITY; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CHEMICAL FUSION (CELL); CONFERENCE PAPER; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL; MESENCHYME CELL; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SKELETAL MUSCLE; STEM CELL;

ANIMALS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL LINEAGE; HUMANS; MODELS, ANIMAL; PHENOTYPE; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; STEM CELLS;

EID: 0344393410     PISSN: 10810706     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.cellbio.19.111301.143037     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (140)

1. Aguayo AJ, Epps J, Charron L, Bray GM. 1976. Multipotentiality of Schwann cells in cross-anastomosed and grafted myelinated and unmyelinated nerves: quantitative microscopy and radioautography. Brain Res. 104:1-20
2. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. 2002. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland. 4th ed.
3. Alison MR, Poulsom R, Jeffery R, Dhillon AP, Quaglia A, et al. 2000. Hepatocytes from non-hepatic adult stem cells. Nature 406: 257
4. Altman J, Das GD. 1966. Autoradiographic and histological studies of postnatal neurogenesis. I. A longitudinal investigation of the kinetics, migration and transformation of cells incorporating tritiated thymidine in neonate rats, with special reference to postnatal neurogenesis in some brain regions. J. Comp. Neurol. 126:337-89
5. Alvarez-Buylla A, Garcia-Verdugo JM. 2002. Neurogenesis in adult subventricular zone. J. Neurosci. 22:629-34
6. Anderson DJ. 2001. Stem cells and pattern formation in the nervous system: the possible versus the actual. Neuron 30:19-35
7. Anderson DJ, Gage FH, Weissman IL. 2001. Can stem cells cross lineage boundaries? Nat. Med. 7:393-95
8. Asakura A, Seale P, Girgis-Gabardo A, Rudnicki MA. 2002. Myogenic specification of side population cells in skeletal muscle. J. Cell Biol. 159:123-34
9. Bailey P, Holowacz T, Lassar AB. 2001. The origin of skeletal muscle stem cells in the embryo and the adult. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 13:679-89
10. Barres BA. 1999. A new role for glia: generation of neurons! Cell 97:667-70
11. Bartlett PF. 1982. Pluripotential hemopoietic stem cells in adult mouse brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79:2722-25
12. Baum CM, Weissman IL, Tsukamoto AS, Buckle AM, Peault B. 1992. Isolation of a candidate human hematopoietic stem-cell population. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 2804-8
13. Becker A, McCulloch E, Till J. 1963. Cytological demonstration of the clonal nature of spleen colonies derived from transplanted mouse marrow cells. Nature 197:452-54
14. Benya PD, Shaffer JD. 1982. Dedifferentiated chondrocytes reexpress the differentiated collagen phenotype when cultured in agarose gels. Cell 30:215-24
15. Bjornson CR, Rietze RL, Reynolds BA, Magli MC, Vescovi AL. 1999. Turning brain into blood: a hematopoietic fate adopted by adult neural stem cells in vivo. Science 283:534-37
16. Brazelton TR, Rossi FM, Keshet GI, Blau HM. 2000. From marrow to brain: expression of neuronal phenotypes in adult mice. Science 290:1775-79
17. Brockes JP. 1997. Amphibian limb regeneration: rebuilding a complex structure. Science 276:81-87
18. Brockes JP, Kumar A. 2002. Plasticity and reprogramming of differentiated cells in amphibian regeneration. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 3:566-74
19. Cameron HA, McKay R. 1998. Stem cells and neurogenesis in the adult brain. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 8:677-80
20. Castro RF, Jackson KA, Goodell MA, Robertson CS, Liu H, Shine HD. 2002. Failure of bone marrow cells to transdifferentiate into neural cells in vivo. Science 297:1299
21. Clarke DL, Johansson CB, Wilbertz J, Veress B, Nilsson E, et al. 2000. Generalized potential of adult neural stem cells. Science 288:1660-63
22. Cong YS, Wright WE, Shay JW. 2002. Human telomerase and its regulation. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 66:407-25
23. Conrad GW, Hart GW, Chen Y. 1977. Differences in vitro between fibroblast-like cells from cornea, heart, and skin of embryonic chicks. J. Cell Sci. 26:119-37
24. Doetsch F, Petreanu L, Caille I, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Alvarez-Buylla A. 2002. EGF converts transit-amplifying neurogenic precursors in the adult brain into multipotent stem cells. Neuron 36:1021-34
25. Donovan PJ, Gearhart J. 2001. The end of the beginning for pluripotent stem cells. Nature 414:92-97
26. Dupin E, Glavieux C, Vaigot P, Le Douarin NM. 2000. Endothelin 3 induces the reversion of melanocytes to glia through a neural crest-derived glial-melanocytic progenitor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:7882-87
27. Dupin E, Real C, Glavieux-Pardanaud C, Vaigot P, Le Douarin NM. 2003. Reversal of developmental restrictions on neural crest lineages: transition from Schwann cells to glial-melanocyte precursors in vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:5229-33
28. Echeverri K, Tanaka EM. 2002. Ectoderm to mesoderm lineage switching during axolotl tail regeneration. Science 298:1993-96
29. Eglitis MA, Mezey E. 1997. Hematopoietic cells differentiate into both microglia and macroglia in the brains of adult mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:4080-85
30. Eguchi G, Kodama R. 1993. Transdifferentiation. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 5:1023-28
31. Eisch AJ. 2002. Adult neurogenesis: implications for psychiatry. Prog. Brain Res. 138: 315-42
32. Evans MJ, Kaufman MH. 1981. Establishment in culture of pluripotential cells from mouse embryos. Nature 292:154-56
33. Ferrari G, Cusella-De Angelis G, Coletta M, Paolucci E, Stornaiuolo A, et al. 1998. Muscle regeneration by bone marrow-derived myogenic progenitors. Science 279:1528-30
34. Ferraris C, Chevalier G, Favier B, Jahoda CA, Dhouailly D. 2000. Adult corneal epithelium basal cells possess the capacity to activate epidermal, pilosebaceous and sweat gland genetic programs in response to embryonic dermal stimuli. Development 127:5487-95
35. Ford CE, Hamerton JL, Barnes DWH, Loutit JF. 1956. Cytological identification of radiation chimaeras. Nature 177:452-54
36. Forsyth NR, Wright WE, Shay JW. 2002. Telomerase and differentiation in multicellular organisms: turn it off, turn it on, and turn it off again. Differentiation 69:188-97
37. Frisen J. 2002. Stem cell plasticity? Neuron 35:415-18
38. Gage FH. 2000. Mammalian neural stem cells. Science 287:1433-38
39. Gage FH, Ray J, Fisher LJ. 1995. Isolation, characterization, and use of stem cells from the CNS. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 18:159-92
40. Galli R, Borello U, Gritti A, Minasi MG, Bjornson C, et al. 2000. Skeletal myogenic potential of human and mouse neural stem cells. Nat. Neurosci. 3:986-91
41. Goldring K, Partridge T, Watt D. 2002. Muscle stem cells. J. Pathol. 197:457-67
42. Goodell MA, Brose K, Paradis G, Conner AS, Mulligan RC. 1996. Isolation and functional properties of murine hematopoietic stem cells that are replicating in vivo. J. Exp. Med. 183:1797-806
43. Gritti A, Parati EA, Cova L, Frolichsthal P, Galli R, et al. 1996. Multipotential stem cells from the adult mouse brain proliferate and self-renew in response to basic fibroblast growth factor. J. Neurosci. 16:1091-100
44. Gussoni E, Soneoka Y, Strickland CD, Buzney EA, Khan MK, et al. 1999. Dystrophin expression in the mdx mouse restored by stem cell transplantation. Nature 401:390-94
45. Hitoshi S, Tropepe V, Ekker M, van der Kooy D. 2002. Neural stem cell lineages are regionally specified, but not committed, within distinct compartments of the developing brain. Development 129:233-44
46. Ivanova NB, Dimos JT, Schaniel C, Hackney JA, Moore KA, Lemischka IR. 2002. A stem cell molecular signature. Science 298:601-4
47. Jackson KA, Majka SM, Wang H, Pocius J, Hartley CJ, et al. 2001. Regeneration of ischemic cardiac muscle and vascular endothelium by adult stem cells. J. Clin. Invest. 107:1395-402
48. Jackson KA, Mi T, Goodell MA. 1999. Hematopoietic potential of stem cells isolated from murine skeletal muscle. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:14482-86
49. Jiang Y, Jahagirdar BN, Reinhardt RL, Schwartz RE, Keene CD, et al. 2002a. Pluripotency of mesenchymal stem cells derived from adult marrow. Nature 418:41-49
50. Jiang Y, Vaessen B, Lenvik T, Blackstad M, Reyes M, Verfaillie CM. 2002b. Multipotent progenitor cells can be isolated from postnatal murine bone marrow, muscle, and brain. Exp. Hematol. 30:896-904
51. Johe KK, Hazel TG, Muller T, Dugich-Djordjevic MM, McKay RD. 1996. Single factors direct the differentiation of stem cells from the fetal and adult central nervous system. Genes Dev. 10:3129-40
52. Joshi CV, Enver T. 2002. Plasticity revisited. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 14:749-55
53. Kablar B, Tajbakhsh S, Rudnicki MA. 2000. Transdifferentiation of esophageal smooth to skeletal muscle is myogenic bHLH factor-dependent. Development 127:1627-39
54. Kondo T, Raff M. 2000. Oligodendrocyte precursor cells reprogrammed to become multipotential CNS stem cells. Science 289:1754-57
55. Kopen GC, Prockop DJ, Phinney DG. 1999. Marrow stromal cells migrate throughout forebrain and cerebellum, and they differentiate into astrocytes after injection into neonatal mouse brains. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:10711-16
56. Korbling M, Katz RL, Khanna A, Ruifrok AC, Rondon G, et al. 2002. Hepatocytes and epithelial cells of donor origin in recipients of peripheral-blood stem cells. N. Engl. J. Med. 346:738-46
57. Kornack DR, Rakic P. 2001. Cell proliferation without neurogenesis in adult primate neocortex. Science 294:2127-30
58. Krause DS, Theise ND, Collector MI, Henegariu O, Hwang S, et al. 2001. Multi-organ, multi-lineage engraftment by a single bone marrow-derived stem cell. Cell 105:369-77
59. LaBarge MA, Blau HM. 2002. Biological progression from adult bone marrow to mononucleate muscle stem cell to multinucleate muscle fiber in response to injury. Cell 111: 589-601
60. Labosky PA, Barlow DP, Hogan BL. 1994. Embryonic germ cell lines and their derivation from mouse primordial germ cells. Ciba Found. Symp. 182:157-68
61. Lagasse E, Connors H, Al-Dhalimy M, Reitsma M, Dohse M, et al. 2000. Purified hematopoietic stem cells can differentiate into hepatocytes in vivo. Nat. Med. 6:1229-34
62. Lapidot T, Petit I. 2002. Current understanding of stem cell mobilization: the roles of chemokines, proteolytic enzymes, adhesion molecules, cytokines, and stromal cells. Exp. Hematol. 30:973-81
63. Laywell ED, Rakic P, Kukekov VG, Holland EC, Steindler DA. 2000. Identification of a multipotent astrocytic stem cell in the immature and adult mouse brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:13883-88
64. Le Douarin NM, Catala M, Batini C. 1997. Embryonic neural chimeras in the study of vertebrate brain and head development. Int. Rev. Cytol. 175:241-309
65. Lin Y, Weisdorf DJ, Solovey A, Hebbel RP. 2000. Origins of circulating endothelial cells and endothelial outgrowth from blood. J. Clin. Invest. 105:71-77
66. Lois C, Alvarez-Buylla A. 1993. Proliferating subventricular zone cells in the adult mammalian forebrain can differentiate into neurons and glia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:2074-77
67. Marshman E, Booth C, Potten CS. 2002. The intestinal epithelial stem cell. BioEssays 24:91-98
68. Martin GR. 1980. Teratocarcinomas and mammalian embryogenesis. Science 209:768-76
69. Martin GR. 1981. Isolation of a pluripotent cell line from early mouse embryos cultured in medium conditioned by teratocarcinoma stem cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:7634-38
70. Mathon NF, Malcolm DS, Harrisingh MC, Cheng L, Lloyd AC. 2001. Lack of replicative senescence in normal rodent glia. Science 291:872-75
71. Matsui Y, Zsebo K, Hogan BL. 1992. Derivation of pluripotential embryonic stem cells from murine primordial germ cells in culture. Cell 70:841-47
72. Mauro A. 1961. Satellite cells of skeletal fibers. J. Biophys. Biochem. 9:493-95
73. McKinney-Freeman SL, Jackson KA, Camargo FD, Ferrari G, Mavilio F, Goodell MA. 2002. Muscle-derived hematopoietic stem cells are hematopoietic in origin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:1341-46
74. Meachem S, von Schonfeldt V, Schlatt S. 2001. Spermatogonia: stem cells with a great perspective. Reproduction 121:825-34
75. Mezey E, Chandross KJ, Harta G, Maki RA, McKercher SR. 2000. Turning blood into brain: cells bearing neuronal antigens generated in vivo from bone marrow. Science 290:1779-82
76. Minguell JJ, Erices A, Conget P. 2001. Mesenchymal stem cells. Exp. Biol. Med. 226:507-20
77. Moore MA. 2002. Cytokine and chemokine networks influencing stem cell proliferation, differentiation, and marrow homing. J. Cell Biochem. Suppl. 38:29-38
78. Morrison SJ. 2001. Stem cell potential: can anything make anything? Curr. Biol. 11:R7-9
79. Morrison SJ, Weissman IL. 1994. The long-term repopulating subset of hematopoietic stem cells is deterministic and isolatable by phenotype. Immunity 1:661-73
80. Morshead CM, Benveniste P, Iscove NN, van der Kooy D. 2002. Hematopoietic competence is a rare property of neural stem cells that may depend on genetic and epigenetic alterations. Nat. Med. 8:268-73
81. Morshead CM, Reynolds BA, Craig CG, McBurney MW, Staines WA, et al. 1994. Neural stem cells in the adult mammalian forebrain: a relatively quiescent subpopulation of subependymal cells. Neuron 13:1071-82
82. Nowell PC, Cole LJ, Habermeyer JG, Roan PL. 1956. Growth and continued function of rat bone marrow cells in X-irradiated mice. Cancer Res. 16:258-61
83. Odelberg SJ, Kollhoff A, Keating MT. 2000. Dedifferentiation of mammalian myotubes induced by msxl. Cell 103:1099-109
84. Orlic D, Kajstura J, Chimenti S, Jakoniuk I, Anderson SM, et al. 2001. Bone marrow cells regenerate infarcted myocardium. Nature 410:701-5
85. Palmer TD, Markakis EA, Willhoite AR, Safar F, Gage FH. 1999. Fibroblast growth factor-2 activates a latent neurogenic program in neural stem cells from diverse regions of the adult CNS. J. Neurosci. 19:8487-97
86. Palmer TD, Ray J, Gage FH. 1995. FGF-2-responsive neuronal progenitors reside in proliferative and quiescent regions of the adult rodent brain. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 6:474-86
87. Palmer TD, Takahashi J, Gage FH. 1997. The adult rat hippocampus contains primordial neural stem cells. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 8:389-404
88. Pang W. 2000. Role of muscle-derived cells in hematopoietic reconstitution of irradiated mice. Blood 95:1106-8
89. Parwaresch MR, Kreipe H, Radzun HJ. 1986. Human macrophage hybrid forming spontaneous giant cells. Virchows Arch. B 51:89-96
90. Patapoutian A, Wold BJ, Wagner RA. 1995. Evidence for developmentally programmed transdifferentiation in mouse esophageal muscle. Science 270:1818-21
91. Petersen BE, Bowen WC, Patrene KD, Mars WM, Sullivan AK, et al. 1999. Bone marrow as a potential source of hepatic oval cells. Science 284:1168-70
92. Pittenger MF, Mackay AM, Beck SC, Jaiswal RK, Douglas R, et al. 1999. Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells. Science 284:143-47
93. Priller J, Persons DA, Klett FF, Kempermann G, Kreutzberg GW, Dirnagl U. 2001. Neogenesis of cerebellar Purkinje neurons from gene-marked bone marrow cells in vivo. J. Cell Biol. 155:733-38
94. Ramalho-Santos M, Yoon S, Matsuzaki Y, Mulligan RC, Melton DA. 2002. "Stemness": transcriptional profiling of embryonic and adult stem cells. Science 298:597-600
95. Resnick JL, Bixler LS, Cheng L, Donovan PJ. 1992. Long-term proliferation of mouse primordial germ cells in culture. Nature 359:550-51
96. Reya T, Morrison SJ, Clarke MF, Weissman IL. 2001. Stem cells, cancer, and cancer stem cells. Nature 414:105-11
97. Reynolds BA, Weiss S. 1992. Generation of neurons and astrocytes from isolated cells of the adult mammalian central nervous system. Science 255:1707-10
98. Richards LJ, Kilpatrick TJ, Bartlett PF. 1992. De novo generation of neuronal cells from the adult mouse brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:8591-95
99. Rietze RL, Valcanis H, Brooker GF, Thomas T, Voss AK, Bartlett PF. 2001. Purification of a pluripotent neural stem cell from the adult mouse brain. Nature 412:736-39
100. Rosania GR, Chang YT, Perez O, Sutherlin D, Dong H, et al. 2000. Myoseverin, a microtubule-binding molecule with novel cellular effects. Nat. Biotechnol. 18:304-8
101. Rossant J. 2001. Stem cells from the mammalian blastocyst. Stem Cells 19:477-82
102. Seale P, Sabourin LA, Girgis-Gabardo A, Mansouri A, Gruss P, Rudnicki MA. 2000. Pax7 is required for the specification of myogenic satellite cells. Cell 102:777-86
103. Shamblott MJ, Axelman J, Wang S, Bugg EM, Littlefield JW, et al. 1998. Derivation of pluripotent stem cells from cultured human primordial germ cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:13726-31
104. Shih CC, Weng Y, Mamelak A, LeBon T, Hu MC, Forman SJ. 2001. Identification of a candidate human neurohematopoietic stem-cell population. Blood 98:2412-22
105. Shihabuddin LS, Horner PJ, Ray J, Gage FH. 2000. Adult spinal cord stem cells generate neurons after transplantation in the adult dentate gyrus. J. Neurosci. 20:8727-35
106. Slack JM, Tosh D. 2001. Transdifferentiation and metaplasia - switching cell types. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 11:581-86
107. Smith AG. 2001. Embryo-derived stem cells: of mice and men. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 17:435-62
108. Spangrude GJ, Heimfeld S, Weissman IL. 1988. Purification and characterization of mouse hematopoietic stem cells. Science 241:58-62
109. Spangrude GJ, Johnson GR. 1990. Resting and activated subsets of mouse multipotent hematopoietic stem cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:7433-37
110. Spradling A, Drummond-Barbosa D, Kai T. 2001. Stem cells find their niche. Nature 414:98-104
111. Stone JS, Oesterle EC, Rubel EW. 1998. Recent insights into regeneration of auditory and vestibular hair cells. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 11:17-24
112. Stone LS. 1967. An investigation recording all salamanders which can and cannot regenerate a lens from the dorsal iris. J. Exp. Zool. 164:87-103
113. Stroeva OG, Mitashov VI. 1983. Retinal pigment epithelium: proliferation and differentiation during development and regeneration. Int. Rev. Cytol. 83:221-93
114. Tang DG, Tokumoto YM, Apperly JA, Lloyd AC, Raff MC. 2001. Lack of replicative senescence in cultured rat oligodendrocyte precursor cells. Science 291:868-71
115. Temple S, Alvarez-Buylla A. 1999. Stem cells in the adult mammalian central nervous system. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 9:135-41
116. Terada N, Hamazaki T, Oka M, Hoki M, Mastalerz DM, et al. 2002. Bone marrow cells adopt the phenotype of other cells by spontaneous cell fusion. Nature 416:542-45
117. Theise ND, Badve S, Saxena R, Henegariu O, Sell S, et al. 2000a. Derivation of hepatocytes from bone marrow cells in mice after radiation-induced myeloablation. Hepatology 31:235-40
118. Theise ND, Nimmakayalu M, Gardner R, Illei PB, Morgan G, et al. 2000b. Liver from bone marrow in humans. Hepatology 32:11-16
119. Thomson JA, Itskovitz-Eldor J, Shapiro SS, Waknitz MA, Swiergiel JJ, et al. 1998. Embryonic stem cell lines derived from human blastocysts. Science 282:1145-47
120. Till JE, McCulloch EA. 1961. A direct measurement of radiation sensitivity of normal mouse bone marrow cells. Radiat. Res. 14:1419-30
121. Till JE, McCulloch EA. 1980. Hemopoietic stem cell differentiation. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 605:431-59
122. Toma JG, Akhavan M, Fernandes KJ, Barnabe-Heider F, Sadikot A, et al. 2001. Isolation of multipotent adult stem cells from the dermis of mammalian skin. Nat. Cell Biol. 3:778-84
123. Tosh D, Slack JM. 2002. How cells change their phenotype. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 3:187-94
124. Tropepe V, Hitoshi S, Sirard C, Mak TW, Rossant J, van der Kooy D. 2001. Direct neural fate specification from embryonic stem cells: a primitive mammalian neural stem cell stage acquired through a default mechanism. Neuron 30:65-78
125. Vasil V, Hildebrandt AC. 1965. Differentiation of tobacco plants from single isolated cells in microcultures. Science 150:889-92
126. Vassilopoulos G, Wang P-R, Russell D. 2003. Transplanted bone marrow forms liver by cell fusion. Nature. 422:901-4
127. Wagers AJ, Sherwood RI, Christensen JL, Weissman IL. 2002. Little evidence for developmental plasticity of adult hematopoietic stem cells. Science 297:2256-59
128. Wang X, Montini E, Al-Dhalimy M, Lagasse E, Finegold M, Grompe M. 2002. Kinetics of liver repopulation after bone marrow transplantation. Am. J. Pathol. 161:565-74
129. Wang X, Willenbring H, Akkari Y, Torimaru YF, Al-Dhalimy M, Lagasse E, et al. 2003. Cell fusion is the principle source of bone-marrow derived hepatocytes. Nature 422: 897-901
130. Watt FM, Hogan BL. 2000. Out of Eden: stem cells and their niches. Science 287:1427-30
131. Weinberg HJ, Spencer PS. 1976. Studies on the control of myelinogenesis. II. Evidence for neuronal regulation of myelin production. Brain Res. 113:363-78
132. Weiss S, Dunne C, Hewson J, Wohl C, Wheatley M, et al. 1996. Multipotent CNS stem cells are present in the adult mammalian spinal cord and ventricular neuroaxis. J. Neurosci. 16:7599-609
133. Weissman IL, Anderson DJ, Gage F. 2001. Stem and progenitor cells: origins, phenotypes, lineage commitments, and transdifferentiations. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 17:387-403
134. Wilmut I, Schnieke AE, McWhir J, Kind AJ, Campbell KH. 1997. Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells. Nature 385:810-13
135. Wolf NS, Kone A, Priestley GV, Bartelmez SH. 1993. In vivo and in vitro characterization of long-term repopulating primitive hematopoietic cells isolated by sequential Hoechst 33342-rhodamine 123 FACS selection. Exp. Hematol. 21:614-22
136. Wright DE, Wagers AJ, Gulati AP, Johnson FL, Weissman IL. 2001. Physiological migration of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Science 294:1933-36
137. Wright WE, Shay JW. 2000. Telomere dynamics in cancer progression and prevention: fundamental differences in human and mouse telomere biology. Nat. Med. 6:849-51
138. Wu AM, Till JE, Siminovitch L, McCulloch EA. 1967. A cytological study of the capacity for differentiation of normal hemopoietic colony-forming cells. J. Cell Physiol. 69:177-84
139. Ying QL, Nichols J, Evans EP, Smith AG. 2002. Changing potency by spontaneous fusion. Nature 416:545-48
140. Zhou S, Schuetz JD, Bunting KD, Colapietro AM, Sampath J, et al. 2001. The ABC transporter Bcrp1/ABCG2 is expressed in a wide variety of stem cells and is a molecular determinant of the side-population phenotype. Nat. Med. 7:1028-34