Dietary minerals and modification of cardiovascular risk factors

Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry

Volumn 14, Issue 9, 2003, Pages 492-506

  Vaskonen, Timo ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI   (Finland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALENDRONIC ACID; BILE ACID; CALCIUM; CHOLESTEROL; DIVALENT CATION; FATTY ACID; LIPID; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; MAGNESIUM; MINERAL; PHYTOSTEROL; POTASSIUM; POTASSIUM CHANNEL; SATURATED FATTY ACID; TETRACYCLINE; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL;

BINDING AFFINITY; BLOOD PRESSURE; BRADYCARDIA; CALCIFICATION; CALCIUM INTAKE; CALCIUM URINE LEVEL; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CONFUSION; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; FAT INTAKE; FATIGUE; FOOD COMPOSITION; FOOD DRUG INTERACTION; FOOD INTAKE; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERCALCEMIA; HYPERKALEMIA; HYPOCALCEMIA; HYPOTENSION; INTESTINE ABSORPTION; INTESTINE PERFORATION; IRRITABILITY; KIDNEY INJURY; LIPID BLOOD LEVEL; LIVER; MEDICAL LITERATURE; NONHUMAN; NUTRIENT; OBESITY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SOMNOLENCE; TOXICITY;

EID: 0141625970     PISSN: 09552863     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0955-2863(03)00074-3     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. Stamler J., Stamler R., Neaton J.D. Blood pressure, systolic and diastolic, and cardiovascular risks. US population data. Arch Intern Med. 15:(3):1993;598-615.
2. Verschuren W.M., Jacobs D.R., Bloemberg B.P., Kromhout D., Menotti A., Aravanis C., et al. Serum total cholesterol and long-term coronary heart disease mortality in different cultures. Twenty-five-year follow-up of the seven countries study. JAMA. 27:(4):1995;131-136.
3. Must A., Spadano J., Coakley E.H., Field A.E., Colditz G., Dietz W.H. The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity. JAMA. 28:(2):1999;1523-1529.
4. Reaven G.M. Role of insulin resistance in human disease (syndrome X) an expanded definition . Annu Rev Med. 4:(4):1993;121-131.
5. DeFronzo R.A., Ferrannini E. Insulin resistance. A multifaceted syndrome responsible for NIDDM, obesity, hypertension dyslipidemia, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Diabetes Care. 1:(4):1991;173-194.
6. The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. Arch Intern Med. 157:1997;2413-2446.
7. Mokdad A.H., Serdula M.K., Dietz M.H., Bowman B.A., Marks J.S., Koplan J.P. The spread of the obesity epidemic in the United States, 1991-1998. JAMA. 28:(2):1999;1519-1522.
8. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults. JAMA. 285:2001;2486-2497.
9. Ford E.S., Giles W.H., Dietz W.H. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US adults findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey . JAMA. 28:(7):2002;356-359.
10. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. A report of the WHO Study Group on Diet, Nutrition and Prevention of Noncommunicable Diseases. Nutr Rev. 49:1991;291-301.
11. Appel L.J., Moore T.J., Obarzanek E., Vollmer W.M., Svetkey L.P., Sacks F.M., et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 33:(6):1997; 1117-1124.
12. Kotchen T.A., McCarron D.A. Dietary electrolytes and blood pressure a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee . Circulation. 9:(8):1998;613-617.
13. Krauss R.M., Eckel R.H., Howard B., Appel L.J., Daniels S.R., Deckelbaum R.J., et al. AHA dietary guidelines Revision 2000. A statement for healthcare professionals from the nutrition committee of the American Heart Association . Circulation. 10:(2):2000;2284-2299.
14. Karppanen H. An antihypertensive salt crucial role of Mildred Seelig in its development . J Am Coll Nutr. 1:(3):1994;493-495.
15. Karppanen H., Mervaala E. Adherence to and population impact of non-pharmacological and pharmacological antihypertensive therapy. J Human Hypertens. 10:(Suppl 1):1996;S57-S61.
16. Karppanen H. New oral salt in treatment of high blood pressure. Magnesium. 8:1989;274-287.
17. Mervaala E.M., Himberg J.J., Laakso J., Tuomainen P., Karppanen H. Beneficial effects of a potassium- and magnesium-enriched salt alternative. Hypertension. 1:(9):1992;535-540.
18. Geleijnse J.M., Witteman J.C., Bak A.A., den Breeijen J.H., Grobbee D.E. Reduction in blood pressure with a low sodium, high potassium, high magnesium salt in older subjects with mild to moderate hypertension. Br Med J. 30:(9):1994;436-440.
19. Mervaala EM, Paakkari I, Laakso J, Nevala R, Teräväinen TM, Fyhrquist F, et al. Replacement of salt by a novel potassium- and magnesium-enriched salt alternative improves the cardiovascular effects of ramipril. Br J Pharmacol 1994;111:1189-97.
20. Itoh K., Kawasaki T. Effect of low sodium, high potassium and high magnesium salt intake on blood pressure and lipid metabolism. J Jpn Soc Nutr Food Sci. 5:(1):1998;1-7.
21. Katz A., Rosenthal T., Maoz C., Peleg E., Zeidenstein R., Levi Y. Effect of a mineral salt diet on 24-h blood pressure monitoring in elderly hypertensive patients. J Human Hypertens. 1:(3):1999;777-780.
22. Bryant R.J., Cadogan J., Weaver C.M. The new dietary reference intakes for calcium implications for osteoporosis . J Am Coll Nutr. 18:1999;406S-412S.
23. McCarron D.A., Reusser M.E. Finding consensus in the dietary calcium-blood pressure debate. J Am Coll Nutr. 18:1999;398S-405S.
24. Marx SJ. Mineral and bone homeostasis. In: Bennett JC, Plum F (Eds.), Cecil Textbook of Medicine, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia 1996; pp. 1351-7.
25. NIH Consensus Conference. Optimal calcium intake. NIH consensus development panel on optimal calcium intake. JAMA. 272:1994;1942-1948.
26. Miller G.D., Anderson J.J. The role of calcium in prevention of chronic diseases. J Am Coll Nutr. 18:1999;371S-372S.
27. Miller G.D., Jarvis J.K., McBean L.D. The importance of meeting calcium needs with foods. J Am Coll Nutr. 20:2001;168S-185S.
28. Segall J.J. Is milk a coronary health hazard? Br J Prev Soc Med. 3:(1):1977;81-85.
29. Sharlin J., Posner B.M., Gershoff S.N., Zeitlin M.F., Berger P.D. Nutrition and behavioral characteristics and determinants of plasma cholesterol levels in men and women. J Am Diet Assoc. 9:(2):1992;434-440.
30. Artaud-Wild S.M., Connor S.L., Sexton G., Connor W.E. Differences in coronary mortality can be explained by differences in cholesterol and saturated fat intakes in 40 countries but not in France and Finland. A paradox. Circulation. 8:(8):1993;2771-2779.
31. Schectman G., McKinney W.P., Pleuss J., Hoffman J.G. Dietary intake of Americans reporting adherence to a low cholesterol diet (NHANES II). Am J Public Health. 8:1990;698-703.
32. Holbrook T.L., Barrett-Connor E. Calcium intake covariates and confounders . Am J Clin Nutr. 5:(3):1991;741-744.
33. De Bacquer D., De Henauw S., De Backer G., Kornitzer M. Epidemiological evidence for an association between serum calcium and serum lipids. Atherosclerosis. 10:(8):1994;193-200.
34. Ness A.R., Smith G.D., Hart C. Milk, coronary heart disease and mortality. J Epidemiol Community Health. 5:(5):2001;379-382.
35. Bostick R.M., Kushi L.M., Wu Y., Meyer K.A., Sellers T.A., Folsom A.R. Relation of calcium, vitamin D, and dairy food intake to ischemic heart disease mortality among postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol. 14:(9):1999;151-161.
36. Howard A.N., Marks J. Hypocholesterolaemic effect of milk. Lancet. 2:1977;255-256.
37. Pfeuffer M., Schrezenmeir J. Bioactive substances in milk with properties decreasing risk of cardiovascular diseases. Br J Nutr. 84:(Suppl 1):2000;S155-S159.
38. Vitale J.J., Hellerstein E.E., Hegsted D.M., Nakamura M., Farbman A. Studies on the interrelationships between dietary magnesium and calcium in atherogenesis and renal lesions. Am J Clin Nutr. 7:1959;13-22.
39. Fleischman A.I., Yacowitz H., Hayton T., Bierenbaum M.L. Long-term studies on the hypolipemic effect of dietary calcium in mature male rats fed cocoa butter. J Nutr. 9:(1):1967;151-158.
40. Yacowitz H., Fleischman A.I., Amsden R.T., Bierenbaum M.L. Effects of dietary calcium upon lipid metabolism in rats fed saturated or unsaturated fat. J Nutr. 9:(2):1967;389-392.
41. Fleischman A.I., Bierenbaum M.L., Lenz P.H. The hypolipidemic effect of calcium-containing compounds and vitamin D 2 in the rat. Lipids. 7:1972;263-266.
42. Vaskonen T., Mervaala E., Sumuvuori V., Seppänen-Laakso T., Karppanen H. Effects of calcium and plant sterols on serum lipids in obese Zucker rats on a low-fat diet. Br J Nutr. 8:(7):2002;239-245.
43. Iacono J.M. Effect of varying the dietary level of calcium on plasma and tissue lipids of rabbits. J Nutr. 10:(4):1974;1165-1171.
44. Renaud S., Ciavatti M., Thevenon C., Ripoll J.P. Protective effects of dietary calcium and magnesium on platelet function and atherosclerosis in rabbits fed saturated fat. Atherosclerosis. 4:(7):1983;187-198.
45. Van der Meer R., De Vries H., West C.E., De Waard H. Casein-induced hypercholesterolaemia in rabbits is calcium-dependent. Atherosclerosis. 5:(6):1985;139-147.
46. Jacques H., Lavigne C., Desrosiers T., Giroux I., Hurley C. The hypercholesterolemic effect of cod protein is reduced in the presence of high dietary calcium. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 7:(3):1995;465-473.
47. Foley M.K., Galloway S.T., Luhman C.M., Faidley T.D., Beitz D.C. Influence of dietary calcium and cholecalciferol on composition of plasma lipids in young pigs. J Nutr. 12:1990;45-51.
48. De Rodas B.Z., Gilliland S.E., Maxwell C.V. Hypocholesterolemic action of Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 43121 and calcium in swine with hypercholesterolemia induced by diet. J Dairy Sci. 7:(9):1996;2121-2128.
49. Diersen-Schade D.A., Richard M.J., Jacobson N.L. Effects of dietary calcium and fat on cholesterol in tissues and feces of young goats. J Nutr. 11:(4):1984;2292-2300.
50. Hines T.G., Jacobson N.L., Beitz D.C., Littledike D.K. Dietary calcium and vitamin D risk factors in the development of atherosclerosis in young goats . J Nutr. 11:(5):1985;167-178.
51. Yacowitz H., Fleischman A.I., Bierenbaum M.L. Effects of oral calcium upon serum lipids in man. Br Med J. 1:1965;1352-1354.
52. Bhattacharyya A.K., Thera C., Anderson J.T., Grande F., Keys A. Dietary calcium and fat. Effect on serum lipids and fecal excretion of cholesterol and its degradation products in man. Am J Clin Nutr. 2:(2):1969;1161-1174.
53. Carlson L.A., Olsson A.G., Oro L., Rossner S. Effects of oral calcium upon serum cholesterol and triglycerides in patients with hyperlipidemia. Atherosclerosis. 1:(4):1971;391-400.
54. Bierenbaum M.L., Fleischman A.I., Raichelson R.I. Long term human studies on the lipid effects of oral calcium. Lipids. 7:1972;202-206.
55. Lehtonen A., Viikari J. Long-term effect of the combination of calcium clofibrate and calcium carbonate on serum total cholesterol, triglyceride and high density lipoprotein-cholesterol concentrations in hyperlipoproteinaemia. A comparative study with clofibrate. Atherosclerosis. 3:(3):1979;49-58.
56. Groot P.H., Grose W.F., Dijkhuis-Stoffelsma R., Fernandes J., Ambagtsheer J.J. The effect of oral calcium carbonate administration on serum lipoproteins of children with familial hypercholesterolaemia (type II-A). Eur J Pediatr. 13:(5):1980;81-84.
57. Bell L., Halstenson C.E., Halstenson C.J., Macres M., Keane W.F. Cholesterol-lowering effects of calcium carbonate in patients with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia. Arch Intern Med. 15:(2):1992;2441-2444.
58. Bierenbaum M.L., Wolf E., Raff M., Maginnis W.P., Amer M.A., Kleyn D., et al. The effect of dietary calcium supplementation on blood pressure and serum lipid levels. Preliminary report. Nutr Rep Int. 3:(6):1987;1147-1157.
59. Denke M.A., Fox M.M., Schulte M.C. Short-term dietary calcium fortification increases fecal saturated fat content and reduces serum lipids in men. J Nutr. 12:(3):1993;1047-1053.
60. Karanja N., Morris C.D., Illingworth D.R., McCarron D.A. Plasma lipids and hypertension response to calcium supplementation . Am J Clin Nutr. 4:(5):1987;60-65.
61. Karanja N., Morris C.D., Rufolo P., Snyder G., Illingworth D.R., McCarron D.A. Impact of increasing calcium in the diet on nutrient consumption, plasma lipids, and lipoproteins in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 5:(9):1994;900-907.
62. Shahkhalili Y., Murset C., Meirim I., Duruz E., Guinchard S., Cavadini C., et al. Calcium supplementation of chocolate effect on cocoa butter digestibility and blood lipids in humans . Am J Clin Nutr. 7:(3):2001;246-252.
63. Reid I.R., Mason B., Horne A., Ames R., Clearwater J., Bava U., et al. Effects of calcium supplementation on serum lipid concentrations in normal older women a randomized controlled trial . Am J Med. 11:(2):2002;343-347.
64. St-Pierre M.V., Hagenbuch G.A.B., Meier P.J. Transport of bile acids in hepatic and non-hepatic tissues. J Exp Biol. 20:(4):2001;1673-1686.
65. Witztum JL. Drugs used in the treatment of hyperlipoproteinemias, In: Hardman, Limbird, Molinoff, Ruddon (Eds.), Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, McGraw-Hill, New York 1996; pp. 875-897.
66. Kris-Etherton P.M., Krummel D., Russell M.E., Dreon D., Mackey S., Borchers J., et al. The effect of diet on plasma lipids, lipoproteins, and coronary heart disease. J Am Diet Assoc. 8:(8):1988;1373-1400.
67. Grundy S.M., Denke M.A. Dietary influences on serum lipids and lipoproteins. J Lipid Res. 3:(1):1990;1149-1172.
68. Givens M.H. Studies in calcium and magnesium metabolism. III. The effect of fat and fatty acid derivatives. J Biol Chem. 3:(1):1917;441-444.
69. Drenick E.J. The influence of ingestion of calcium and other soap-forming substances on fecal fat. Gastroenterology. 4:(1):1961;242-244.
70. Welberg J.W., Monkelbaan J.F., de Vries E.G., Muskiet F.A., Cats A., Oremus E.T., et al. Effects of supplemental dietary calcium on quantitative and qualitative fecal fat excretion in man. Ann Nutr Metab. 3:(8):1994;185-191.
71. Baron J.A., Beach M., Mandel J.S., van Stolk R.U., Haile R.W., Sandler R.S., et al. Calcium supplements for the prevention of colorectal adenomas. Calcium Polyp Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med. 34:1999;101-107.
72. Holt P.R. Studies of calcium in food supplements in humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 88:(9):1999;128-137.
73. McCarron D.A., Morris C.D., Henry H.J., Stanton J.L. Blood pressure and nutrient intake in the United States. Science. 22:(4):1984;1392-1398.
74. Birkett N.J. Comments on a meta-analysis of the relation between dietary calcium intake and blood pressure. Am J Epidemiol. 14:(8):1998;223-228.
75. Hatton D.C., McCarron D.A. Dietary calcium and blood pressure in experimental models of hypertension. A review. Hypertension. 2:(3):1994;513-530.
76. Schleiffer R., Gairard A. Blood pressure effects of calcium intake in experimental models of hypertension. Semin Nephrol. 1:(5):1995;526-535.
77. Hatton D.C., Yue Q., McCarron D.A. Mechanisms of calcium's effects on blood pressure. Semin Nephrol. 1:(5):1995;593-602.
78. Pörsti, I. Role of calcium in hypertension. Studies in spontaneously hypertensive rats (Thesis). Acta Univ Tamperensis ser A vol 327, Tampere 1991.
79. Pörsti I., Wuorela H., Arvola P., Mammi P., Nurmi A.K., Koistinaho J., et al. Effects of calcium supplementation and deoxycorticosterone on plasma atrial natriuretic peptide and electrolyte excretion in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Acta Physiol Scand. 14:(1):1991;343-350.
80. Pörsti I., Wuorela H., Arvola P., Säynävälammi P., Nurmi A.K., Huhtala H., et al. Effects of calcium and deoxycorticosterone on blood pressure, plasma renin activity and vascular reactivity in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Clin Exp Hypertens. 1:(2):1990;1159-1174.
81. Pörsti I. Arterial smooth muscle contractions in spontaneously hypertensive rats on a high-calcium diet. J Hypertens. 1:1992;255-263.
82. Mäkynen H., Kähönen M., Wu X., Arvola P., Pörsti I. Endothelial function in deoxycorticosterone-NaCl hypertension effect of calcium supplementation . Circulation. 9:(3):1996;1000-1008.
83. Tolvanen J.P., Mäkynen H., Wu X., Hutri-Kähönen N., Ruskoaho H., Karjala K., et al. Effects of calcium and potassium supplements on arterial tone in vitro in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Br J Pharmacol. 12:(4):1998;119-128.
84. Jolma P., Kalliovalkama J., Tolvanen J.P., Koobi P., Kähönen M., Hutri-Kähönen N., et al. High-calcium diet enhances vasorelaxation in nitric oxide-deficient hypertension. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 279:2000;H1036-H1043.
85. Ross R. Atherosclerosis-an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med. 34:1999;115-126.
86. Kinlay S., Libby P., Ganz P. Endothelial function and coronary artery disease. Curr Opin Lipidol. 1:(2):2001;383-389.
87. Zemel M.B. Calcium modulation of hypertension and obesity mechanisms and implications . J Am Coll Nutr. 20:2001;428S-435S.
88. Luft F.C., McCarron D.A. Heterogeneity of hypertension the diverse role of electrolyte intake . Annu Rev Med. 4:(2):1991;347-355.
89. Griffith L.E., Guyatt G.H., Cook R.J., Bucher H.C., Cook D.J. The influence of dietary and nondietary calcium supplementation on blood pressure an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials . Am J Hypertens. 1:(2):1999;84-92.
90. Anderson J.W., Konz E.C. Obesity and disease management effects of weight loss on comorbid conditions . Obes Res. 9:2001;326S. 3334.
91. Zemel M.B., Shi H., Greer B., Dirienzo D., Zemel P.C. Regulation of adiposity by dietary calcium. FASEB J. 1:(4):2000;1132-1138.
92. Davies K.M., Heaney R.P., Recker R.R., Lappe J.M., Rafferty M.J.K., et al. Calcium intake and body weight. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 8:(5):2000;4635-4638.
93. Lin Y.C., Lyle R.M., McCabe L.D., McCabe G.P., Weaver C.M., Teegarden D. Dairy calcium is related to changes in body composition during a two-year exercise intervention in young women. J Am Coll Nutr. 1:(9):2000;754-760.
94. Carruth B.R., Skinner J.D. The role of dietary calcium and other nutrients in moderating body fat in preschool children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2:(5):2001;559-566.
95. Zemel M.B. Nutritional and endocrine modulation of intracellular calcium implications in obesity, insulin resistance and hypertension . Mol Cell Biochem. 18:(8):1998;129-136.
96. Jones B.H., Kim J.H., Zemel M.B., Woychik R.P., Michaud E.J., Wilkison W.O., et al. Upregulation of adipocyte metabolism by agouti proteIn possible paracrine actions in yellow mouse obesity . Am J Physiol. 2701:1996;E192-E196.
97. Xue B., Moustaid N., Wilkison W.O., Zemel M.B. The agouti gene product inhibits lipolysis in human adipocytes via a Ca2+-dependent mechanism. FASEB J. 2:(9):1998;1391-1396.
98. Grey A.B., Evans M.C., Stapleton J.P., Reid I.R. Body weight and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with primary hyperparathyroidism. Ann Intern Med. 12:(1):1994;745-749.
99. Shi H., Dirienzo D., Zemel M.B. Effects of dietary calcium on adipocyte lipid metabolism and body weight regulation in energy-restricted aP2-agouti transgenic mice. FASEB J. 1:(5):2001;291-293.
100. Spiegel AM. The parathyroid glands, hypercalcemia, and hypocalcemia, In: Bennett JC, Plum F (Eds.), Cecil Textbook of Medicine, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia 1996; pp. 1365-1373.
101. Whiting S.J., Wood R.J. Adverse effects of high-calcium diets in humans. Nutr Rev. 5:(5):1997;1-9.
102. Heller H.J. The role of calcium in the prevention of kidney stones. J Am Coll Nutr. 18:1999;373S-378S.
103. Borghi L., Schianchi T., Meschi T., Guerra A., Allegri F., Maggiore U., et al. Comparison of two diets for the prevention of recurrent stones in idiopathic hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med. 34:(6):2002;77-84.
104. Weaver C.M., Proulx W.R., Heaney R. Choices for achieving adequate dietary calcium with a vegetarian diet. Am J Clin Nutr. 70:1999;543S. 5548.
105. Hallberg L., Brune M., Erlandsson M., Sandberg A.S., Rossander-Hulten L. Calcium effect of different amounts on nonheme- and heme-iron absorption in humans . Am J Clin Nutr. 5:(3):1991;112-119.
106. Bendich A. Calcium supplementation and iron status of females. Nutrition. 1:(7):2001;46-51.
107. Seelig M.S. Consequences of magnesium deficiency on the enhancement of stress reactions; preventive and therapeutic implications (a review). J Am Coll Nutr. 1:(3):1994;429-446.
108. Saris N.E., Mervaala E., Karppanen H., Khawaja J.A., Lewenstam A. Magnesium. An update on physiological, clinical and analytical aspects. Clin Chim Acta. 29:(4):2000;1-26.
109. Arsenian M.A. Magnesium and cardiovascular disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 3:(5):1993;271-310.
110. Liao F., Folsom A.R., Brancati F.L. Is low magnesium concentration a risk factor for coronary heart disease? The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Am Heart J. 13:(6):1998;480-490.
111. Ouchi Y., Tabata R.E., Stergiopoulos K., Sato F., Hattori A., Orimo H. Effect of dietary magnesium on development of atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits. Arteriosclerosis. 1:1990;732-737.
112. Altura B.T., Brust M., Bloom S., Barbour R.L., Stempak J.G., Altura B.M. Magnesium dietary intake modulates blood lipid levels and atherogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 8:(7):1990;1840-1844.
113. Ravn H.B., Korsholm T.L., Falk E. Oral magnesium supplementation induces favorable antiatherogenic changes in ApoE-deficient mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2:(1):2001;858-862.
114. Singh R.B., Rastogi S.S., Sharma V.K., Saharia R.B., Kulshretha S.K. Can dietary magnesium modulate lipoprotein metabolism? Magnes Trace Elem. 9:1990;255-264.
115. Singh R.B., Rastogi S.S., Mani U.V., Seth J., Devi L. Does dietary magnesium modulate blood lipids? Biol Trace Elem Res. 3:1991;59-64.
116. Kisters K., Spieker C., Tepel M., Zidek W. New data about the effects of oral physiological magnesium supplementation on several cardiovascular risk factors (lipids and blood pressure). Magnes Res. 6:1993;355-360.
117. Djurhuus M.S., Klitgaard N.A., Pedersen K.K., Blaabjerg O., Altura A.M., Altura B.T., et al. Magnesium reduces insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and serum lipid concentrations in type 1 diabetes. Metabolism. 5:2001;1409-1417.
118. Elin R.J. Magnesium the fifth but forgotten electrolyte . Am J Clin Pathol. 10:(2):1994;616-622.
119. Whelton P.K., Klag M.J. Magnesium and blood pressure review of the epidemiologic and clinical trial experience . Am J Cardiol. 63:1989;26G-30G.
120. Mizushima S., Cappuccio F.P., Nichols R., Elliott P. Dietary magnesium intake and blood pressure a qualitative overview of the observational studies . J Hum Hypertens. 1:(2):1998;447-453.
121. Ma J., Folsom A.R., Melnick S.L., Eckfeldt J.H., Sharrett A.R., Nabulsi A.A., et al. Associations of serum and dietary magnesium with cardiovascular disease, hypertension diabetes, insulin, and carotid arterial wall thickness the ARIC study. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study . J Clin Epidemiol. 4:(8):1995;927-940.
122. Hajjar I.M., Grim C.E., George V., Kotchen T.A. Impact of diet on blood pressure and age-related changes in blood pressure in the US population analysis of NHANES III . Arch Intern Med. 16:(1):2001;589-593.
123. Dyckner T., Wester P.O. Effect of magnesium on blood pressure. Br Med J. 28:(6):1983;1847-1849.
124. Widman L., Wester P.O., Stegmayr B.K., Wirell M. The dose-dependent reduction in blood pressure through administration of magnesium. A double blind placebo controlled cross-over study. Am J Hypertens. 6:1993;41-45.
125. Kawano Y., Matsuoka H., Takishita S., Omae T. Effects of magnesium supplementation in hypertensive patients assessment by office, home, and ambulatory blood pressures . Hypertension. 3:(2):1998;260-265.
126. Cappuccio F.P., Markandu N.D., Beynon G.W., Shore A.C., Sampson B., MacGregor G.A. Lack of effect of oral magnesium on high blood pressure a double blind study . Br Med J. 29:(1):1985;235-238.
127. Ferrara L.A., Iannuzzi R., Castaldo A., Iannuzzi A., Dello R.A., Mancini M. Long-term magnesium supplementation in essential hypertension. Cardiology. 8:(1):1992;25-33.
128. Sacks F.M., Willett W.C., Smith A., Brown L.E., Rosner B., Moore T.J. Effect on blood pressure of potassium, calcium, and magnesium in women with low habitual intake. Hypertension. 3:(1):1998;131-138.
129. Balon T.W., Gu J.L., Tokuyama Y., Jasman A.P., Nadler J.L. Magnesium supplementation reduces development of diabetes in a rat model of spontaneous NIDDM. Am J Physiol. 269:1995;E745-E752.
130. Kao W.H., Folsom A.R., Nieto F.J., Mo J.P., Watson R.L., Brancati F.L. Serum and dietary magnesium and the risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study . Arch Intern Med. 15:(9):1999;2151-2159.
131. Paolisso G., Sgambato S., Pizza G., Passariello N., Varricchio M., D'Onofrio F. Improved insulin response and action by chronic magnesium administration in aged NIDDM subjects. Diabetes Care. 1:(2):1989;265-269.
132. Zemva A., Zemva Z. Ventricular ectopic activity, left ventricular mass, hyperinsulinemia, and intracellular magnesium in normotensive patients with obesity. Angiology. 5:(1):2000;101-106.
133. Eaton S.B., Konner M. Paleolithic nutrition. A consideration of its nature and current implications. N Engl J Med. 31:(2):1985;283-289.
134. Tobian L. Dietary sodium chloride and potassium have effects on the pathophysiology of hypertension in humans and animals. Am J Clin Nutr. 65:1997;606S-611S.
135. He F.J., MacGregor G.A. Fortnightly review Beneficial effects of potassium . Br Med J. 32:(3):2001;497-501.
136. Tunstall-Pedoe H., Woodward M., Tavendale R., A'Brook R., McCluskey M.K. Comparison of the prediction by 27 different factors of coronary heart disease and death in men and women of the Scottish Heart Health Study cohort study . Br Med J. 31:(5):1997;722-729.
137. Ma G., Young D.B., Clower B.R. Inverse relationship between potassium intake and coronary artery disease in the cholesterol-fed rabbit. Am J Hypertens. 1:(2):1999;821-825.
138. McCabe R.D., Bakarich M.A., Srivastava K., Young D.B. Potassium inhibits free radical formation. Hypertension. 2:(4):1994;77-82.
139. McCabe R.D., Young D.B. Potassium inhibits cultured vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. Am J Hypertens. 7:1994;346-350.
140. Lin H., Young D.B. Interaction between plasma potassium and epinephrine in coronary thrombosis in dogs. Circulation. 8:(9):1994;331-338.
141. Ma G., Young D.B., Clower B.R., Anderson P.G., Lin H., Abide A.M. High potassium intake inhibits neointima formation in the rat carotid artery balloon injury model. Am J Hypertens. 1:(3):2000;1014-1020.
142. Ma G., Srivastava N.T., Anderson P.G., Grady A.W., Skelton T.N., Lyle K., et al. Elevated potassium intake inhibits neointimal proliferation in the swine coronary artery. Am J Hypertens. 1:(4):2001;879-886.
143. He F.J., MacGregor G.A. Potassium intake and blood pressure. Am J Hypertens. 1:(2):1999;849-851.
144. Whelton P.K., He J., Cutler J.A., Brancati F.L., Appel L.J., Follmann D., et al. Effects of oral potassium on blood pressure. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. JAMA. 27:(7):1997;1624-1632.
145. Karppanen H. Minerals and blood pressure. Ann Med. 2:(3):1991;299-305.
146. Fujita T., Sato Y. Role of hypothalamic-renal noradrenergic systems in hypotensive action of potassium. Hypertension. 2:1992;466-472.
147. Campbell W.B., Schmitz J.M. Effect of alterations in dietary potassium on the pressor and steroidogenic effects of angiotensins II and III. Endocrinology. 10:(3):1978;2098-2104.
148. Pere A.K., Lindgren L., Tuomainen P., Krogerus L., Rauhala P., Laakso J., et al. Dietary potassium and magnesium supplementation in cyclosporine-induced hypertension and nephrotoxicity. Kidney Int. 5:(8):2000;2462-2472.
149. Rapoport M.I., Hurd H.F. Thiazide-induced glucose intolerance treated with potassium. Arch Intern Med. 113:1996;405-408.
150. McFarland K.F., Carr A.A. Changes in the fasting blood sugar after hydrochlorothiazide and potassium supplementation. J Clin Pharmacol. 1:(7):1977;13-17.
151. Karppanen H., Tanskanen A., Tuomilehto J., Puska P., Vuori J., Jäntti V., et al. Safety and effects of potassium- and magnesium-containing low sodium salt mixtures. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 6:(Suppl 1):1984;S236-S243.
152. Landin K., Lindgarde F., Saltin B., Wilhelmsen L. Decreased skeletal muscle potassium in obesity. Acta Med Scand. 22:(3):1988;507-513.
153. Landin K., Lindgarde F., Saltin B., Smith U. The skeletal muscle Na:K ratio is not increased in hypertension evidence for the importance of obesity and glucose intolerance . J Hypertens. 9:1991;65-69.
154. Spanswick D., Smith M.S., Mirshamsi D., Routh V.H., Ashford M.L. Insulin activates ATP-sensitive K+ channels in hypothalamic neurons of lean, but not obese rats. Nat Neurosci. 3:2000;757-758.
155. Kokko JP. Disturbances in potassium balance, In: Bennett JC, Plum F (Eds.), Cecil Textbook of Medicine, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia 1996; p. 538-543.
156. Schim van der Loeff H.J., Strack van Schijndel R.J., Thijs L.G. Cardiac arrest due to oral potassium intake. Intensive Care Med. 1:(5):1988;58-59.
157. McCaughan D. Hazards of non-prescription potassium supplements. Lancet. 1:(8375):1984;513-514.
158. Browning J.J., Channer K.S. Hyperkalaemic cardiac arrhythmia caused by potassium citrate mixture. Br Med J. 28:(3):1981;1366.
159. Mervaala E.M., Laakso J., Vapaatalo H., Karppanen H. Improvement of cardiovascular effects of metoprolol by replacement of common salt with a potassium- and magnesium-enriched salt alternative. Br J Pharmacol. 11:(2):1994;640-648.
160. Mervaala E.M., Malmberg L., Teräväinen T.L., Lähteenmäki T., Karjala K., Paakkari I., et al. Influence of different dietary salts on the cardiovascular and renal effects of moxonidine in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 35:(6):1997;107-114.
161. Mervaala E.M., Malmberg L., Teräväinen T.L., Laakso J., Vapaatalo H., Karppanen H. Influence of dietary salts on the cardiovascular effects of low-dose combination of ramipril and felodipine in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Br J Pharmacol. 12:(3):1998;195-204.
162. Obarzanek E., Sacks F.M., Vollmer W.M., Bray G.A., Miller E.R., Lin P.H., et al. Effects on blood lipids of a blood pressure-lowering diet the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Trial . Am J Clin Nutr. 7:(4):2001;80-89.
163. Vaskonen T., Mervaala E., Seppänen-Laakso T., Karppanen H. Diet enrichment with calcium and magnesium enhances the cholesterol-lowering effect of plant sterols in obese Zucker rats. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 1:(1):2001;158-167.
164. Law M. Plant sterol and stanol margarines and health. Br Med J. 32:2000;861-864.
165. Lichtenstein A.H., Deckelbaum R.J. AHA Science Advisory. Stanol/sterol ester-containing foods and blood cholesterol levels. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 10:(3):2001;1177-1179.
166. Vaskonen T., Mervaala E., Krogerus L., Karppanen H. Supplementation of plant sterols and minerals benefits obese zucker rats fed an atherogenic diet. J Nutr. 13:(2):2002;231-237.
167. Tikkanen M.J., Högström P., Tuomilehto J., Keinä nen-Kiukaanniemi S., Sundvall J., Karppanen H. Effect of a diet based on low-fat foods enriched with nonesterified plant sterols and mineral nutrients on serum cholesterol. Am J Cardiol. 8:(8):2001;1157-1162.