The role of melanocortins and their receptors in inflammatory processes, nerve regeneration and nociception

Life Sciences

Volumn 73, Issue 7, 2003, Pages 823-847

  Starowicz, Katarzyna ^a   Przewłocka, Barbara ^b  

^a INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MOLECULAR AND CELL BIOLOGY   (Poland)

^b INSTITUTE OF PHARMACOLOGY   (Poland)

Author keywords

Adrenocorticotropic hormone; Central nervous system; Melanocortin receptor; Proopiomelanocortin; melanocyte stimulating hormone

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERMEDIN; BETA INTERMEDIN; CORTICOTROPIN; GAMMA INTERMEDIN; INTERMEDIN; LIGAND; MELANOCORTIN; MELANOCORTIN 1 RECEPTOR; MELANOCORTIN 2 RECEPTOR; MELANOCORTIN 3 RECEPTOR; MELANOCORTIN 4 RECEPTOR; MELANOCORTIN 5 RECEPTOR; MELANOCORTIN RECEPTOR; NDP ALPHA INTERMEDIN; OPIATE PEPTIDE; PEPTIDE; PROTEIN; PROTEIN HS005; PROTEIN HS006; PROTEIN HS007; PROTEIN HS009; PROTEIN HS010; PROTEIN HS011; PROTEIN HS012; PROTEIN HS014; PROTEIN HS024; PROTEIN HS963; PROTEIN HS964; PROTEIN MTII; PROTEIN SHU9119; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ANTIPYRETIC ACTIVITY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; HORMONE DETERMINATION; HUMAN; IMMUNOMODULATION; INFLAMMATION; NERVE CONDUCTION; NERVE REGENERATION; NOCICEPTION; NONHUMAN; PAIN; PROTEIN ANALYSIS; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN LOCALIZATION; PROTEIN PROTEIN INTERACTION; SHORT SURVEY; SPINAL CORD;

EID: 0038381508     PISSN: 00243205     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0024-3205(03)00349-7     Document Type: Short Survey

References (159)

1. Eipper B.A., Mains R.E. Structure and biosynthesis of pro-opiomelanocortin/endorpin and related peptides. Endocrine Reviews. 1:1980;1-27.
2. Nakanishi S., Inoue A., Kita T., Nakamura M., Chang A.C., Cohen S.N., Numa S. Nucleotide sequence of cloned cDNA for bovine corticotropin-beta-lipotropin precursor. Nature. 278(5703):1979;423-427.
3. Roberts J.L. Opioids I. Herz A. 1993;347-378 Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
4. De Wied D., Jolles J. Neuropeptides derived from pro-opiocortin: behavioral, physiological, and neurochemical effects. Physiological Reviews. 62(3):1982;976-1059.
5. Wikberg J.E.S. Melanocortin receptors: perspectives for novel drugs. European Journal of Pharmacology. 375(1-3):1999;295-310.
6. Strand F.L., Zuccarelli L.A., Williams K.A., Lee S.J., Lee T.S., Antonawich F.J., Alves S.E. Melanotropins as growth factors. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 680:1993;29-50.
7. Korner J., Chun J., Harter D., Axel R. Isolation and functional expression of a mammalian prohormone processing enzyme, murine prohormone convertase 1. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences USA. 88(15):1991;6834-6838.
8. Zhou A., Mains R.E. Endoproteolytic processing of proopiomelanocortin and prohormone convertases 1 and 2 in neuroendocrine cells overexpressing prohormone convertases 1 or 2. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 269(26):1994;17440-17447.
9. Abdel-Malek Z.A. Melanocortin receptors: their functions and regulation by physiological agonists and antagonists. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 58(3):2001;434-441.
10. Eberle A.N. The melanotropins. 1988;Karger, Basel.
11. Mountjoy K.G., Robins L.S., Mortrud M.T., Cone R.D. The cloning of a family of genes that encode the melanocortin receptors. Science. 257(5074):1992;1248-1251.
12. Chhajlani V., Wikberg J.E. Molecular cloning and expression of the human melanocyte stimulating hormone receptor cDNA. FEBS Letters. 309(3):1992;417-420.
13. Gantz I., Konda Y., Tashiro T., Shimoto Y., Miwa H., Munzert G., Watson S.J., DelValle J., Yamada T. Molecular cloning of a novel melanocortin receptor. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 268(11):1993;8246-8250.
14. Gantz I., Miwa H., Konda Y., Shimoto Y., Tashiro T., Watson S.J., DelValle J., Yamada T. Molecular cloning, expression, and gene localization of a fourth melanocortin receptor. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 268(20):1993;15174-15179.
15. Chhajlani V., Muceniece R., Wikberg J.E. Molecular cloning of a novel human melanocortin receptor. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 195(2):1993;866-873.
16. Konda Y., Gantz I., DelValle J., Shimoto Y., Miwa H., Yamada T. Interaction of dual intracellular signaling pathways activated by the melanocortin-3 receptor. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 269(18):1994;13162-13166.
17. Buggy J.J. Binding of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone to its G-protein-coupled receptor on B-lymphocytes activates the Jak/STAT pathway. The Biochemical Journal. 331(1):1998;211-216.
18. Mountjoy K.G. The human melanocyte stimulating hormone receptor has evolved to become "super-sensitive" to melanocortin peptides. Molecular Endocrinology. 102(1-2):1994;7-11.
19. Sawyer T.K., Sanfilippo P.J., Hruby V.J., Engel M.H., Heward C.B., Burnett J.B., Hadley M.E. 4-Norleucine, 7-D-phenylalanine-alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone: a highly potent alpha-melanotropin with ultralong biological activity. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences USA. 77(10):1980;5754-5758.
20. Star R.A., Rajora N., Huang J., Stock R.C., Catania A., Lipton J.M. Evidence of autocrine modulation of macrophage nitric oxide synthase by alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences USA. 92(17):1995;8016-8020.
21. Hartmeyer M., Scholzen T., Becher E., Bhardwaj R.S., Schwartz T., Luger T.A. Human dermal microvascular endothelial cells express the melanocortin receptor type 1 and produce increased levels of IL-8 upon stimulation with alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Journal of Immunolog. 159(4):1997;1930-1937.
22. Catania A., Rajora N., Capsoni F., Minonzio F., Star R.A., Lipton J.M. The neuropeptide alpha-MSH has specific receptors on neutrophils and reduces chemotaxis in vitro. Peptides. 17(4):1996;675-679.
23. Boston B.A., Cone R.D. Characterization of melanocortin receptor subtype expression in murine adipose tissues and in the 3T3-L1 cell line. Endocrinology. 137(5):1996;2043-2050.
24. Wong K.Y., Rajora N., Boccoli G., Catania A., Lipton J.M. A potential mechanism of local anti-inflammatory action of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone within the brain: modulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by human astrocytic cells. Neuroimmunomodulation. 4(1):1997;37-41.
25. Luger T.A., Scholzen T., Brzoska T., Becher E., Slominski A., Paus R. Cutaneous immunomodulation and coordination of skin stress responses by alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 840:1998;381-394.
26. Chhajlani V. Distribution of cDNA for melanocortin receptor subtypes in human tissues. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology International. 38(1):1996;73-80.
27. Xia Y., Wikberg J.E. Localization of ACTH receptor mRNA by in situ hybridization in mouse adrenal gland. Cell and Tissue Research. 286(1):1996;63-68.
28. Slominski A., Ermak G., Mihm M. ACTH receptor, CYP11A1, CYP17 and CYP21A2 genes are expressed in skin. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 81(7):1996;2746-2749.
29. Boston B.A. The role of melanocortins in adipocyte function. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 885:1998;75-84.
30. Roselli-Rehfuss L., Mountjoy K.G., Robbins L.S., Mortrud M.T., Low M.J., Tatro J.B., Entwistle M.L., Simerly R.B., Cone R.D. Identification of a receptor for gamma melanotropin and other proopiomelanocortin peptides in the hypothalamus and limbic system. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences USA. 90(19):1993;8856-8860.
31. Low M.J., Simerly R., Cone R.D. Receptors for the melanocortin peptides in the central nervous system. Current Opinion in Endocrinol Diab. 1:1994;79-88.
32. Lindblom J., Schioth H.B., Larsson A., Wikberg J.E., Bergstrom L. Autoradiographic discrimination of melanocortin receptors indicates that the MC3 subtype dominates in the medial rat brain. Brain Research. 810(1-2):1998;161-171.
33. Alvaro J.D., Tatro J.B., Quillan J.M., Fogliano M., Eisenhard M., Lerner M.R., Nestler E.J., Duman R.S. Morphine down-regulates melanocortin-4 receptor expression in brain regions that mediate opiate addiction. Molecular Pharmacology. 50(3):1996;583-591.
34. Wikberg J.E., Muceniece R., Mandrika I., Prusis P., Lindblom J., Post C., Skottner A. New aspects on the melanocortins and their receptors. Pharmacological Research. 42(5):2000;393-420.
35. Mountjoy K.G., Wong J. Obesity, diabetes and functions for proopiomelanocortin-derived peptides. Molecular endocrinology Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 128(1-2):1997;171-177.
36. Labbe O., Desarnaud F., Eggerickx D., Vassart G., Parmentier M. Molecular cloning of a mouse melanocortin 5 receptor gene widely expressed in peripheral tissues. Biochemistry. 33(15):1994;4543-4549.
37. Chen W., Kelly M.A., Opitz-Araya X., Thomas R.E., Low M.J., Cone R.D. Exocrine gland dysfunction in MC5-R-deficient mice: evidence for coordinated regulation of exocrine gland function by melanocortin peptides. Cell. 91(6):1997;789-798.
38. van der Kraan M., Adan R.A., Entwistle M.L., Gispen W.H., Burbach J.P., Tatro J.B. Expression of melanocortin-5 receptor in secretory epithelia supports a functional role in exocrine and endocrine glands. Endocrinology. 139(5):1998;2348-2355.
39. Gantz I., Shimoto Y., Konda Y., Miwa H., Dickinson C.J., Yamada T. Molecular cloning, expression, and characterization of a fifth melanocortin receptor. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 200(3):1994;1214-1220.
40. Griffon N., Mignon V., Facchinetti P., Diaz J., Schwartz J.C., Sokoloff P. Molecular cloning and characterization of the rat fifth melanocortin receptor. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 200(2):1994;1007-1014.
41. Chen W. The melanocortin-5 receptor. Cone R.D. The Melanocortin receptors. 2000;449-472 Humana, Totowa, NJ.
42. Sawyer T.K., Sanfilippo P.J., Hruby V.J., Engel M.H., Heward C.B., Burnett J.B., Hadley M.E. 4-Norleucine, 7-D-phenylalanine-alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone: a highly potent alpha-melanotropin with ultralong biological activity. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences USA. 77(10):1980;5754-5758.
43. Al-Obeidi F., Castrucci A.M., Hadley M.E., Hruby V.J. Potent and prolonged acting cyclic lactam analogues of alpha-melanotropin: design based on molecular dynamics. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 32(12):1989;2555-2561.
44. Hadley M.E., Marwan M.M., al.-Obeidi F., Hruby V.J., Castrucci A.M. Linear and cyclic alpha-melanotropin [4-10]-fragment analogues that exhibit superpotency and residual activity. Pigment cell research/sponsored by the European Society for Pigment Cell Research and the International Pigment Cell Society. 2(6):1989;478-484.
45. Bednarek M.A., Macneil T., Kalyani R.N., Tang R., Van der Ploeg L.H., Weinberg D.H. Analogs of MTII, lactam derivatives of alpha-melanotropin, modified at the N-terminus, and their selectivity at human melanocortin receptors 3, 4, and 5. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 261(1):1999;209-213.
46. Abou-Mohamed G., Papapetropoulos A., Ulrich D., Catravas J.D., Tuttle R.R., Caldwell R.W. HP-228, a novel synthetic peptide, inhibits the induction of nitric oxide synthase in vivo but not in vitro. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 275(2):1995;584-591.
47. Hurby V.J., Lu D., Sharma S.D., Castrucci A.L., Kesterson R.A., al.-Obeidi F.A., Hadley M.E., Cone R.D. Cyclic lactam alpha-melanotropin analogues of Ac-Nle4-cyclo[Asp5, D-Phe7,Lys10] alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone-(4-10)-NH2 with bulky aromatic amino acids at position 7 show high antagonist potency and selectivity at specific melanocortin receptors. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 38(18):1995;3454-3461.
48. Schioth H.B., Mutulis F., Mucience R., Prusis P., Wikberg J.E. Discovery of novel melanocortin4 receptor selective MSH analogues. British Journal of Pharmacology. 124(1):1998;75-82.
49. Li S.J., Varga K., Archer P., Hruby V.J., Sharma S.D., Kesterson R.A., Cone R.D., Kunos G. Melanocortin antagonists define two distinct pathways of cardiovascular control by alpha- and gamma-melanocyte-stimulating hormones. Journal of Neuroscience. 16(16):1996;5182-5188.
50. Fan W., Boston B.A., Kesterson R.A., Hurby V.J., Cone R.D. Role of melanocortinergic neurons in feeding and the agouti obesity syndrome. Nature. 385(6612):1997;165-168.
51. Kask A., Rago L., Mutulis F., Pahkla R., Wikberg J.E., Schioth H.B. Selective antagonist for the melanocortin 4 receptor (HS014) increases food intake in free-feeding rats. Biochemical and biophysical research communications. 245(1):1988;90-93.
52. Kask A., Rago L., Korrovits P., Wikberg J.E., Schioth H.B. Evidence that orexigenic effects of melanocortin 4 receptor antagonist HS014 are mediated by neuropeptide Y. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 248(2):1998;245-249.
53. Kask A., Mutulis F., Muceniece R., Pahkla R., Mutule I., Wikberg J.E., Rago L., Schioth H.B. Discovery of a novel superpotent and selective melanocortin-4 receptor antagonist (HS024): evaluation in vitro and in vivo. Endocrinology. 139(12):1998;5006-5014.
54. Schioth H.B., Muceniece R., Wikberg J.E. Characterisation of the melanocortin 4 receptor by radioligand binding. Pharmacology and toxicology. 79(3):1996;161-165.
55. Luger T.A., Scholzen T., Grabbe S. The role of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in cutaneous biology. The journal of investigative dermatology. Symposium proceedings/the Society for Investigative Dermatology, Inc. [and] European Society for Dermatological Research. 2(1):1997;87-93. (Review).
56. Rajora N., Boccoli G., Catania A., Lipton J.M. Alpha-MSH modulates experimental inflammatory bowel disease. Peptides. 18(3):1997;381-385.
57. Ceriani G., Diaz J., Murphree S., Catania A., Lipton J.M. The neuropeptide alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone inhibits experimental arthritis in rats. Neuroimmunomodulation. 1(1):1994;28-32.
58. Rajora N., Boccoli G., Burns D., Sharma S., Catania A.P., Lipton J.M. Alpha-MSH modulates local and circulating tumor necrosis factor-alpha in experimental brain inflammation. Journal of Neuroscience. 17(6):1997;2181-2186.
59. Huh S.K., Lipton J.M., Batjer H.H. The protective effects of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone on canine brain stem ischemia. Neurosurgery. 40(1):1997;132-139.
60. Ichiyama T., Sakai T., Catania A., Barsh G.S., Furukawa S., Lipton J.M. Systematically administred alpha-melanocyte-stimulating peptides inhibit NF-κB activation in experimental brain inflammation. Brain Research. 836(1-2):1999;31-37.
61. Chiao H., Kohda Y., McLeroy P., Craig L., Housini I., Star R.A. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone protects against renal injury after ischemia in mice and rats. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 99(6):1997;1165-1172.
62. Ichiyama T., Sato S., Okada K., Catania A., Lipton J.M. The neuroimmunomodulatory peptide alpha-MSH. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 917:2000;221-226.
63. Kluger M.J., Kozak W., Leon L.R., Soszynski D., Conn C.A. Cytokines and fever. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2(4):1995;216-223.
64. Kozak W., Kluger M.J., Tesfaigzi J., Kozak A., Mayfield K.P., Wachulec M., Dokladny K. Molecular mechanisms of fever and endogenous antipyresis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 917:2000;121-134.
65. Strand F.L. New vistas for melanocortins. Finally, an explanation for their pleiotropic functions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 897:1999;1-16.
66. Pittman Q.J., Wilkinson M.F. Central arginine vasopressin and endogenous antipyresis. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 70(5):1992;786-790.
67. Catania A., Lipton J.M. α-Melanocyte stimulating hormone in the modulation of host reactions. Endocrine Reviews. 14(5):1993;564-576.
68. Coelho M.M., Souza G.E., Pela I.R. Endotoxin-induced fever is modulated by endogenous glucocorticoids in rats. The American Journal of Physiology. 263(2 Pt 2):1992;423-427.
69. Morrow L.E., McClellan J.L., Conn C.A., Kluger M.J. Glucocorticoids alter fever and IL-6 responses to psychological stress and to lipopolysaccharide. The American Journal of Physiology. 264(5 Pt 2):1993;1010-1016.
70. Lipton J.M., Catania A. Anti-inflammatory actions of the neuroimmunomodulator alpha-MSH. Immunology Today. 18(3):1997;140-145.
71. Bell R.C., Lipton J.M. Pulsatile release of antipyretic neuropeptide alpha-MSH from septum of rabbit during fever. The American Journal of Physiology. 252(6 Pt 2):1987;1152-1157.
72. Huang Q.H., Entwistle M.L., Alvaro J.D., Duman R.S., Hruby V.J., Tatro J.B. Antipyretic role of endogenous melanocortins mediated by central melanocortin receptors during endotoxin-induced fever. Journal of Neuroscience. 17(9):1997;3343-3351.
73. Huang Q.H., Hruby V.J., Tatro J.B. Role of central melanocortins in endotoxin-induced anorexia. The American Journal of Physiology. 276(3 Pt 2):1999;864-871.
74. Hagan M.M., Benoit S.C., Rushing P.A., Woods S.C., Seeley R.J. Society for neuroscience abstracts. 30th Annual Meeting New Orleans, LA, November 4-9:2000;278.
75. Luger T.A., Kalden D., Scholzen T.E., Brzoska T. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone as a mediator of tolerance induction. Pathobiology. 67(5-6):1999;318-321.
76. Lotti T., Bianchi B., Ghersetich I., Brazzini B., Hercogova J. Can the brain inhibit inflammation generated in the skin? The lesson of gamma-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. International Journal of Dermatology. 41(6):2002;311-318.
77. Macaluso A., McCoy D., Ceriani G., Watanabe T., Biltz J., Catania A., Lipton J.M. Antiinflammatory influences of alpha-MSH molecules: central neurogenic and peripheral actions. Journal of Neuroscience. 14(4):1994;2377-2382.
78. Getting S.J., Gibbs L., Clark A.J., Flower R.J., Perretti M. POMC gene-derived peptides activate melanocortin type 3 receptor on murine macrophages, suppress cytokine release, and inhibit neutrophil migration in acute experimental inflammation. Journal of Immunology. 162(12):1999;7446-7453.
79. Getting S.J., Allcock G.H., Flower R., Perretti M. Natural and synthetic agonists of the melanocortin receptor type 3 possess anti-inflammatory properties. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 69(1):2001;98-104.
80. Taherzadeh S., Sharma S., Chajlani V., Gantz I., Rajora N., Demitri M.T., Kelly L., Zhao H., Ichiyama T., Catania A., Lipton J.M. α-MSH and its receptors in regulation of tumor necrosis factor-α by human monocyte/macrophages. The American Journal of Physiology. 276(5 Pt 2):1999;1289-1294.
81. Horn K.D. Evolving strategies in the tratment of sepsis and systemic inflammtory response syndrome (SIRS). QJM: monthly journal of the Association of Physicians. 91:1998;265-277.
82. Luger T.A., Brzoska T., Scholzen T.E., Kalden D.H., Sunderkotter C., Armstrong C., Ansel J. The role of alpha-MSH as a modulator of cutaneous inflammation. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 917:2000;232-238.
83. Ghosh S., May M.J., Kopp E.B. NF-kappa B and Rel proteins: evolutionarily conserved mediators of immune responses. Annual Review of Immunology. 16:1998;225-260.
84. Pahl H.L. Activators and target genes of Rel/NF-kappaB transcription factors. Oncogene. 18(49):1999;6853-6866.
85. Flohe L., Brigelius-Flohe R., Saliou C., Traber M.G., Packer L. Redox regulation of NF-kappa B activation. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 22(6):1997;1115-1126.
86. Siebenlist U., Franzoso G., Brown K. Structure, regulation and function of NF-kappa B. Annual Review of Cell Biology. 10:1994;405-455.
87. Ichiyama T., Zhao H., Catania A., Furukawa S., Lipton J.M. alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone inhibits NF-kappaB activation and IkappaBalpha degradation in human glioma cells and in experimental brain inflammation. Experimental Neurology. 157(2):1999;359-365.
88. Lipton J.M., Catania A., Ichiyama T. Marshaling the Anti-Inflammatory Influence of the Neuroimmunomodulator alpha-MSH. News in physiological sciences: an international journal of physiology produced jointly by the International Union of Physiological Sciences and the American Physiological Society. 15:2000;192-195.
89. Kalden D.H., Scholzen T., Brzoska T., Luger T.A. Mechanisms of the antiinflammatory effects of alpha-MSH. Role of transcription factor NF-kappa B and adhesion molecule expression. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 885:1999;254-261.
90. Butcher E.C. Leukocyte-endothelial cell recognition: three (or more) steps to specificity and diversity. Cell. 67(6):1991;1033-1036.
91. Slominski A., Wortsman J., Luger T., Paus R., Solomon S. Corticotropin releasing hormone and proopiomelanocortin involvement in the cutaneous response to stress. Physiological Reviews. 80(3):2000;979-1020.
92. Catania A., Airaghi L., Garofalo L., Cutuli M., Lipton J.M. The neuropeptide alpha-MSH in HIV infection and other disorders in humans. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 840:1998;848-856.
93. Scholzen T.E., Kalden D.H., Brzoska T., Fisbeck T., Fastrich M., Schiller M., Bohm M., Schwarz T., Armstrong C.A., Ansel J.C., Luger T.A. Expression of proopiomelanocortin peptides in human dermal microvascular endothelial cells: evidence for a regulation by ultraviolet light and interleukin-1. The journal of investigative dermatology. Symposium proceedings/the Society for Investigative Dermatology, Inc. [and] European Society for Dermatological Research. 115(6):2000;1021-1028.
94. Bohm M., Schiller M., Stander S., Seltmann H., Li Z., Brzoska T., Metze D., Schioth H.B., Skottner A., Seiffert K., Zouboulis C.C., Luger T.A. Evidence for expression of melanocortin-1 receptor in human sebocytes in vitro and in situ. The journal of investigative dermatology. Symposium proceedings/the Society for Investigative Dermatology, Inc. [and] European Society for Dermatological Research. 118(3):2002;533-539.
95. Catania A., Cutuli M., Garofalo L., Carlin A., Airaghi L., Barcellini W., Lipton J.M. The neuropeptide alpha-MSH in host defense. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 917:2000;227-231.
96. Richards D.B., Lipton J.M. Effect of alpha-MSH 11-13 (lysine-proline-valine) on fever in the rabbit. Peptides. 5(4):1984;815-817.
97. Hiltz M.E., Lipton J.M. Antiinflammatory activity of a COOH-terminal fragment of the neuropeptide alpha-MSH. The FASEB journal: official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. 3(11):1989;2282-2284.
98. Cutuli M., Cristiani S., Lipton J.M., Catania A. Antimicrobial effects of alpha-MSH peptides. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 67(2):2000;233-239.
99. Bhattacharya A., Datta A. Effect of cyclic AMP on RNA and protein synthesis in Candida albicans. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 77(4):1977;1483-1544.
100. Fauci A.S. Host factors and the pathogenesis of HIV-induced disease. Nature. 384(6609):1996;529-534.
101. Poli G., Fauci A.S. Cytokine modulation of HIV expression. Seminars in Immunology. 5(3):1993;165-173.
102. Rosenberg Z.F., Fauci A.S. Immunopathogenesis of HIV infection. The FASEB journal: official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. 5(10):1991;2382-2390.
103. Bhardwaj R., Becher E., Mahnke K., Hartmeyer M., Schwarz T., Scholzen T., Luger T.A. Evidence for the differential expression of the functional alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor MC-1 on human monocytes. Journal of Immunology. 158(7):1997;3378-3384.
104. Artuc M., Grutzkau A., Luger T., Henz B.M. Expression of MC1- and MC5-receptors on the human mast cell line HMC-1. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 885:1999;364-367.
105. Edwards P.M., Van der Zee C.E., Verhaagen J., Schotman P., Jennekens F.G., Gispen W.H. Evidence that the neurotrophic actions of alpha-MSH may derive from its ability to mimick the actions of a peptide formed in degenerating nerve stumps. Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 64(3):1984;333-340.
106. Plantinga L.C., Verhaagen J., Edwards P.M., Hali M., Brakkee J.H., Gispen W.H. Pharmacological evidence for the involvement of endogenous alpha-MSH-like peptides in peripheral nerve regeneration. Peptides. 16(2):1995;319-324.
107. Verhaagen J., Edwards P.M., Jennekens F.G., Gispen W.H. Pharmacological aspects of the influence of melanocortins on the formation of regenerative peripheral nerve sprouts. Peptides. 8(4):1987;581-584.
108. Adan R.A., van der Kraan M., Doornbos R.P., Bar P.R., Burbach J.P., Gispen W.H. Melanocortin receptors mediate alpha-MSH-induced stimulation of neurite outgrowth in neuro 2A cells. Brain research. Molecular Brain Research. 36(1):1996;37-44.
109. Van der Neut R., Bar P.R., Sodaar P., Gispen W.H. Trophic influences of alpha-MSH and ACTH4-10 on neuronal outgrowth in vitro. Peptides. 9(5):1988;1015-1020.
110. Daval J.L., Louis J.C., Gerard M.J., Vincendon G. Influence of adrenocorticotropic hormone on the growth of isolated neurons in culture. Neuroscience Letters. 36(3):1983;299-304.
111. Richter-Landsberg C., Jastorff B. The role of cAMP in nerve growth factor-promoted neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells. The Journal of cell biology. 102(3):1986;821-829.
112. Strand F.L., Kung T.T. ACTH accelerates recovery of neuromuscular function following crushing of peripheral nerve. Peptides. 1(2):1980;135-138.
113. Strand F.L., Lee S.J., Lee T.S., Zuccarelli L.A., Antonawich F.J., Kume J., Williams K.A. Non-corticotropic ACTH peptides modulate nerve development and regeneration. Reviews in the Neurosciences. 4(4):1993;321-363.
114. Lee S.J., Lee T.S., Alves S.E., Strand F.L. Immunocytochemical localization of ACTH-(4-10) in the rat spinal cord following peripheral nerve trauma. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 739:1994;320-323.
115. Antonawich F.J., Azmitia E.C., Kramer H.K., Strand F.L. Specificity versus redundancy of melanocortins in nerve regeneration. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 739:1994;60-73.
116. Attella M.J., Hoffman S.W., Pilotte M.P., Stein D.G. Effects of BIM-22015, an analog of ACTH4-10, on functional recovery after frontal cortex injury. Behavioral and Neural Biology. 57(2):1992;157-166.
117. Wolterink G., Van Zanten E., Kamsteeg H., Radhakishun F.S., Van Ree J.M. Functional recovery after destruction of dopamine systems in the nucleus accumbens of rats. II. Facilitation by the ACTH-(4-9) analog ORG 2766. Brain Research. 507(1):1990;101-108.
118. de Koning P., Neijt J.P., Jennekens F.G., Gispen W.H. Org.2766 protects from cisplatin-induced neurotoxicity in rats. Experimental neurology. 97(3):1987;746-750.
119. de Wied D. Neurotrophic effects of ACTH/MSH neuropeptides. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis. (Warsz). 50(4-5):1990;353-366.
120. Joosten E.A., Majewska B., Houweling D.A., Bar P.R., Gispen W.H. Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone promotes regrowth of injured axons in the adult rat spinal cord. Journal of Neurotrauma. 16(6):1999;543-553.
121. Van der Zee C.E., Nielander H.B., Vos J.P., Lopes da Silva S., Verhaagen J., Oestreicher A.B., Schrama L.H., Schotman P., Gispen W.H. Expression of growth-associated protein B-50 (GAP43) in dorsal root ganglia and sciatic nerve during regenerative sprouting. Journal of Neuroscience. 9(10):1989;3505-3512.
122. Plantinga L.C., Verhaagen J., Edwards P.M., Schrama L.H., Burbach J.P., Gispen W.H. Expression of the pro-opiomelanocortin gene in dorsal root ganglia, spinal cord and sciatic nerve after sciatic nerve crush in the rat. Brain Research. Molecular Brain Research. 16(1-2):1992;135-142.
123. Verhaagen J., Edwards P.M., Gispen W.H. Damaged rat peripheral nerves do not contain detectable amounts of alpha-MSH. Journal of Neuroscience Research. 19(1):1988;14-18.
124. Hol E.M., Gispen W.H., Bar P.R. ACTH-related peptides: receptors and signal transduction systems involved in their neurotrophic and neuroprotective actions. Peptides. 16(5):1995;979-993.
125. Rydel R.E., Greene L.A. cAMP analogs promote survival and neurite outgrowth in cultures of rat sympathetic and sensory neurons independently of nerve growth factor. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences USA. 85(4):1988;1257-1261.
126. Pichichero M., Beer B., Clody D.E. Effects of dibutyryl cyclic AMP on restoration of function of damaged sciatic nerve in rats. Science. 182(113):1973;724-725.
127. Kilmer S.L., Carlsen R.C. Forskolin activation of adenylate cyclase in vivo stimulates nerve regeneration. Nature. 307(5950):1984;455-457.
128. Nakagawa-Yagi Y., Saito Y., Takada Y., Nakamura H. Suppressive effect of carbachol on forskolin-stimulated neurite outgrowth in human neuroblastoma NB-OK1 cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 182(1):1992;45-54.
129. Roisen F.J., Murphy R.A., Pichichero M.E., Braden W.G. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate stimulation of axonal elongation. Science. 175(17):1972;73-74.
130. Mattson M.P., Taylor-Hunter A., Kater S.B. Neurite outgrowth in individual neurons of a neuronal population is differentially regulated by calcium and cyclic AMP. Journal of Neuroscience. 8(5):1988;1704-1711.
131. Lankford K.L., Letourneau P.C. Evidence that calcium may control neurite outgrowth by regulating the stability of actin filaments. The Journal of Cell Biology. 109(3):1989;1229-1243.
132. al-Mohanna F.A., Cave J., Bolsover S.R. A narrow window of intracellular calcium concentration is optimal for neurite outgrowth in rat sensory neurones Brain Research. Developmental Brain Research. 70(2):1992;287-290.
133. Bijlsma W.A., Schotman P., Jennekens F.G., Gispen W.H., De Wied D. The enhanced recovery of sensorimotor function in rats is related to the melanotropic moiety of ACTH/MSH neuropeptides. European Journal of Pharmacology. 92(3-4):1983;231-236.
134. Sandman C.A., Kastin A.J. Intraventricular administration of MSH induces hyperalgesia in rats. Peptides. 2(2):1981;231-233.
135. Bertolini A., Poggioli R., Fratta W. Withdrawal symptoms in morphine-dependent rats intracerebroventricularly injected with ACTH1-24 and with beta-MSH. Life Sciences. 29(3):1981;249-252.
136. Williams D.W. Jr., Lipton J.M., Giesecke A.H. Jr. Influence of centrally administered peptides on ear withdrawal from heat in the rabbit. Peptides. 7(6):1986;1095-1100.
137. Smock T., Fields H.L. ACTH1-24 blocks opiate-induced analgesia in the rat. Brain Research. 212(1):1981;202-206.
138. Ohkubo T., Shibata M., Takahashi H., Naruse S. Naloxone prevents the analgesic action of alpha-MSH in mice. Experientia. 41(5):1985;627-628.
139. Walker J.M., Akil H., Watson S.J. Evidence for homologous actions of pro-opiocortin products. Science. 210(4475):1980;1247-1249.
140. Contreras P.C., Takemori A.E. Antagonism of morphine-induced analgesia, tolerance and dependence by alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 229(1):1984;21-26.
141. Szekely J.I., Miglecz E., Dunai-Kovacs Z., Tarnawa I., Ronai A.Z., Graf L., Bajusz S. Attenuation of morphine tolerance and dependence by alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone(alpha-MSH). Life Scieces. 24(21):1979;1931-1938.
142. van Ree J.M. The influence of neuropeptides related to pro-opiomelanocortin on acquisition of heroin self-administration of rats. Life Sciences. 33(23):1983;2283-2289.
143. Alvaro J.D., Tatro J.B., Duman R.S. Melanocortins and opiate addiction. Life Sciences. 61(1):1997;1-9.
144. Rene F., Muller A., Jover E., Kieffer B., Koch B., Loeffler J.P. Melanocortin receptors and delta-opioid receptor mediate opposite signalling actions of POMC-derived peptides in CATH.a cells. European Journal of Neuroscience. 10(5):1998;1885-1894.
145. Vrinten D.H., Kalkman C.J., Adan R.A., Gispen W.H. Neuropathic pain: a possible role for the melanocortin system? Eurropean Journal of Pharmacology. 429(1-3):2001;61-69.
146. van der Kraan M., Tatro J.B., Entwisltle M.L., Brakkee J.H., Burbach J.P., Adan R.A., Gispen W.H. Expression of melanocortin receptors and pro-opiomelanocortin in the rat spinal cord in relation to neurotrophic effects of melanocortins. Brain Research. Molecular Brain Research. 63(2):1999;276-286.
147. Vrinten D.H., Gispen W.H., Groen G.J., Adan R.A.H. Antagonism of the melanocortin system reduces cold and mechanical allodynia in mononeurophatic rats. Journal of Neuroscience. 20(21):2000;8131-8137.
148. Starowicz K., Przewlocki R., Gispen W.H., Przewlocka B. Modulation of melanocortin-induced changes in spinal nociception by μ-opioid receptor agonist and antagonist in neuropathic rats. NeuroReport. 13(18):2002;2447-2452.
149. Etemad-Moghadam B., Chen H., Yin P., Aziz N., Hedley M.L. Inhibition of NF-kappa B activity by plasmid expressed alphaMSH peptide. Journal of Neuroimmunology. 125(1-2):2002;23-29.
150. Ceriani G., Diaz J., Murphree S., Catania A., Lipton J.M. The neuropeptide alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone inhibits experimental arthritis in rats. Neuroimmunomodulation. 1(1):1994;28-32.
151. Chiao H., Foster S., Thomas R., Lipton J., Star R.A. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone reduces endotoxin-induced liver inflammation. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 97(9):1996;2038-2044.
152. Lipton J.M., Macaluso A., Hiltz M.E., Catania A. Central administration of the peptide alpha-MSH inhibits inflammation in the skin. Peptides. 12(4):1991;795-798.
153. Rajora N., Boccoli G., Burns D., Sharma S., Catania A.P., Lipton J.M. Alpha-MSH modulates local and circulating tumor necrosis factor-alpha in experimental brain inflammation. Journal of Neuroscience. 17(6):1997;2181-2186.
154. Gispen W.H., Hamers F.P., Vecht C.J., Jennekens F.G., Neyt J.P. ACTH/MSH like peptides in the treatment of cisplatin neuropathy. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 43(1-3):1992;179-183.
155. Holdeman M., Lipton J.M. Antipyretic activity of a potent alpha-MSH analog. Peptides. 6(2):1985;273-275.
156. Lerner A.B., McGuire W. Effect of alpha- and beta-melanocyte stimulating hormone on skin colour of man. Nature. 189:1961;176-179.
157. Dorr R.T., Lines R., Levine N., Brooks C., Xiang L., Hruby V.J., Hadley M.E. Evaluation of melanotan-II, a superpotent cyclic melanotropic peptide in a pilot phase-I clinical study. Life Sciences. 58(20):1996;1777-1784.
158. Levine N., Sheftel S.N., Eytan T., Dorr R.T., Hadley M.E., Weinrach J.C., Ertl G.A., Toth K., McGee D.L., Hruby V.J. Induction of skin tanning by subcutaneous administration of a potent synthetic melanotropin. JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association. 266(19):1991;2730-2736.
159. Ichiyama T., Campbell I.L., Furukawa S., Catania A., Lipton J.M. Autocrine alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone inhibits NF-kappaB activation in human glioma. Journal of Neuroscience Research. 58(5):1999;684-689.