RNA based vaccines

DNA and Cell Biology

Volumn 21, Issue 12, 2002, Pages 953-961

  Cannon, Georgetta ^a   Weissman, Drew ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON; CARCINOEMBRYONIC ANTIGEN; CD83 ANTIGEN; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CXCR4; DNA VACCINE; GRANULOCYTE MACROPHAGE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; GREEN FLUORESCENT PROTEIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G ANTIBODY; INTERLEUKIN 12; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 4; KEYHOLE LIMPET HEMOCYANIN; MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGEN CLASS 1; MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGEN CLASS 2; MANNOSE RECEPTOR; MUCIN 1; NUCLEIC ACID; PURINE P2Y RECEPTOR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE; RNA VACCINE; TELOMERASE REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 3; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; TYROSINASE RELATED PROTEIN 1; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VACCINE; VIRUS ENVELOPE PROTEIN; VIRUS GLYCOPROTEIN; VIRUS PROTEIN;

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION; ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELL; AUTOIMMUNITY; CELL ACTIVATION; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTE; DENDRITIC CELL; DNA TRANSFECTION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG PULSE THERAPY; GENE GUN; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNIZATION; IMMUNOGENICITY; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; MELANOMA; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVIEW; RNA REPLICATION; TH1 CELL; TUMOR IMMUNITY; VIRAL GENE DELIVERY SYSTEM; VIRUS PARTICLE;

ADJUVANTS, IMMUNOLOGIC; ANIMALS; DENDRITIC CELLS; FORECASTING; HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS; HUMANS; RNA; VACCINES, DNA; VACCINES, SYNTHETIC; VIRAL VACCINES; VIRUS REPLICATION;

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS;

EID: 0036966008     PISSN: 10445498     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/104454902762053882     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. AKBARI, PANJWANI, N., GARCIA, S., TASCON, R., LOWRIE, D., and STOCKINGER, B. (1999). DNA vaccination: transfection and activation of dendritic cells as key events for immunity. J. Exp. Med. 189, 169-178.
2. ALEXOPOULOU, L., HOLT, A.C., MEDZHITOV, R., and FLAVELL, R.A. (2001). Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor 3. Nature. 413, 732-738.
3. +) T helper cells in the cytotoxic T lymphocyte response to HIV-1. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 12, 375-380.
4. ANDERSSON, C., VASCONCELOS, N.M., SIEVERTZON, M., HADDAD, D., LILJEQVIST, S., BERGLUND, P., LILJESTROM, P., AHLBORG, N., STAHL, S., and BERZINS, K. (2001). Comparative immunization study using RNA and DNA constructs encoding a part of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen Pf332. Sand. J. Immunol. 54, 117-124.
5. ASHLEY, D.M., FAIOLA, B., NAIR, S., HALE, L.P., BIGNER, D.D., and GILBOA, E. (1997). Bone marrow-generated dendritic cells pulsed with tumor extracts or tumor RNA induce antitumor immunity against central nervous system tumors. J. Exp. Med. 186, 1177-1182.
6. BIRAGYN, A., SURENHU, M., YANG, D., RUFFINI, P.A., HAINES, B.A., KLYUSHNENKOVA, E., OPPENHEIM, J.J., and KWAK, L.W. (2001). Mediators of innate immunity that target immature, but not mature, dendritic cells induce antitumor immunity when genetically fused with nonimmunogenic tumor antigens. J. Immunol. 167, 6644-6653.
7. BOCZKOWSKI, D., NAIR, S.K., NAM, J.H., LYERLY, H.K., and GILBOA, E. (2000). Induction of tumor immunity and cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses using dendritic cells transfected with messenger RNA amplified from tumor cells. Cancer Res. 60, 1028-1034.
8. BOYLE, J.S., KONIARAS, C., and LEW, A.M. (1997). Influence of cellular location of expressed antigen on the efficacy of DNA vaccination: cytotoxic T lymphocyte and antibody responses are suboptimal when antigen is cytoplasmic after intramuscular DNA immunization. Int. Immunol. 9, 1897-1906.
9. BRAND, D., LEMIALE, F., TURBICA, I., BUZELAY, L., BRUNET, S., and BARIN, F. (1998). Comparative analysis of humoral immune responses to HIV type 1 envelope glycoproteins in mice immunized with a DNA vaccine, recombinant Semliki Forest virus RNA, or recombinant Semliki Forest virus particles. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 14, 1369-1377.
10. BREDENBEEK, P.J., FROLOV, I., RICE, C.M., and SCHLESINGER, S. (1993). Sindbis virus expression vectors: packaging of RNA replicons by using defective helper RNAs. J. Virol. 67, 6439-6446.
11. CASARES, S., INABA, K., BRUMEANU, T.D., STEINMAN, R.M., and BONA, C.A. (1997). Antigen presentation by dendritic cells after immunization with DNA encoding a major histocompatibility complex class II-restricted viral epitope. J. Exp. Med. 186, 1481-1486.
12. CASTELLINO, F., ZHONG, G., and GERMAIN, R.N. (1997). Antigen presentation by MHC class II molecules: invariant chain function, protein trafficking, and the molecular basis of diverse determinant capture. Hum. Immunol. 54, 159-169.
13. CAUX, C., LIU, Y.J., and BANCHEREAU, J. (1995). Recent advances in the study of dendritic cells and follicular dendritic cells. Immunol. Today 16, 2-4.
14. CELLUZZI, C.M., and FALO, L.D., Jr. (1998). Physical interaction between dendritic cells and tumor cells results in an immunogen that induces protective and therapeutic tumor rejection. J. Immunol. 160, 3081-3085.
15. CHAPMAN, H.A. (1998). Endosomal proteolysis and MHC class II function. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 10, 93-102.
16. CHARBONNIER, A.S., KOHRGRUBER, N., KRIEHUBER, E., STINGL, G., ROT, A., and MAURER, D. (1999). Macrophage inflammatory protein 3alpha is involved in the constitutive trafficking of epidermal langerhans cells. J. Exp. Med. 190, 1755-1768.
17. CHATTERGOON, M., BOYER, J., and WEINER, D.B. (1997). Genetic immunization: a new era in vaccines and immune therapeutics. FASEB J. 11, 753-763.
18. CHENG, W. F., HUNG C. H., CHAI C. Y., HSU K. F., HE L., LING M., and WU T. C. (2001). Enhancement of sindbis virus self-replicating RNA vaccine potency by linkage of herpes simplex virus type 1 VP22 protein to antigen. J. Virol. 75, 2368-2376.
19. CHOW, Y.H., CHIANG, B.L., LEE, Y.L., CHI, W.K., LIN, W.C., CHEN, Y.T., and TAO, M.H. (1998). Development of Th1 and Th2 populations and the nature of immune responses to hepatitis B virus DNA vaccines can be modulated by codelivery of various cytokine genes. J. Immunol. 160, 1320-1329.
20. COLOMBO, M.P. (1998). Tumor and dendritic cells as cellular vaccines: confrontation and perspectives - a symposium in writing. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 46, 69.
21. CONDON, C., WATKINS, S.C., CELLUZZI, C.M., THOMPSON, K., and FALO, JR., L.D. (1996). DNA-based immunization by in vivo transfection of dendritic cells. Nature Med. 2, 1122-1128.
22. COOK, D.N., PROSSER, D.M., FORSTER, R., ZHANG, J., KUKLIN, N.A., ABBONDANZO, S.J., NIU, X.D., CHEN, S.C., MANFRA, D.J., WIEKOWSKI, M.T., SULLIVAN, L.M., SMITH, S.R., GREENBERG, H.B., NARULA, S.K., LIPP, M., and LIRA. (2000). CCR6 mediates dendritic cell localization, lymphocyte homeostasis, and immune responses in mucosal tissue. Immunity 12, 495-503.
23. CORRADIN, G., and DEMOTZ, S. (1997). Peptide-MHC complexes assembled following multiple pathways: an opportunity for the design of vaccines and therapeutic molecules. Hum. Immunol. 54, 137-147.
24. DAVIS, C.B., DIKIC, I., UNUTMAZ, D., HILL, C.M., ARTHOS, J., SIANI, M.A., THOMPSON, D.A., SCHLESSINGER, J., and LITTMAN, D.R. (1997). Signal transduction due to HIV-1 envelope interactions with chemokine receptors CXCR4 or CCR5. J. Exp. Med. 186, 1793-1798.
25. DE BRUIJN, M.L., SCHUURHUIS, D.H., VIERBOOM, M.P., VERMEULEN, H., DE COCK, K.A., OOMS, M.E., RESSING, M.E., TOEBES, M., FRANKEN, K.L., DRIJFHOUT, J.W., et al. (1998). Immunization with human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) oncoprotein-loaded dendritic cells as well as protein in adjuvant induces MHC class I-restricted protection to HPV16-induced tumor cells. Cancer Res. 58, 724-731.
26. DEML, L., BOJAK, A., STECK, S., GRAF, M., WILD, J., SCHIRMBECK, R., WOLF, H., and WAGNER, R. (2001). Multiple effects of codon usage optimization on expression and immunogenicity of DNA candidate vaccines encoding the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Gag protein. J. Virol. 75, 10991-11001.
27. +) T-cell in humans without foreign helper epitopes. J. Clin. Invest. 105, R9-R14.
28. DHODAPKAR, M.V., STEINMAN, R.M., SAPP, M., DESAI, H., FOSSELLA, C., KRASOVSKY, J., DONAHOE, S.M., DUNBAR, P.R., CERUNDOLO, V., NIXON, D.F., and BHARDWAJ, N. (1999). Rapid generation of broad T-cell immunity in humans after a single injection of mature dendritic cells. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 104, 173-180.
29. DIEU-NOSJEAN, M.C., VICARI, A., LEBECQUE, S., and CAUX, C. (1999). Regulation of dendritic cell trafficking: a process that involves the participation of selective chemokines. J. Leukoc. Biol. 66, 252-262.
30. DJABALLAH, H. (1997). Antigen processing by proteasomes: insights into the molecular basis of crypticity. Mol. Biol. Rep. 24, 63-67.
31. DONNELLY, J.J., ULMER, J.B., SHIVER, J.W., and LIU, M.A. (1997). DNA vaccines. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 15, 617-648.
32. ELLIOTT, G., and O'HARE, P. (1997). Intercellular trafficking and protein delivery by a herpesvirus structural protein. Cell 88, 223-233.
33. ENGLEMAN, E.G. (1997). Dendritic cells: potential role in cancer therapy. Cytotechnology 25, 1-8.
34. FERNANDEZ, N., DUFFOUR, M.T., PERRICAUDET, M., LOTZE, M.T., TURSZ, T., and ZITVOGEL, L. (1998). Active specific T-cell-based immunotherapy for cancer: nucleic acids, peptides, whole native proteins, recombinant viruses, with dendritic cell adjuvants or whole tumor cell-based vaccines. Principles and future prospects. Cytokines, Cell. Mol. Ther. 4, 53-65.
35. FULLER, D.H., CORB, M.M., BARNETT, S., STEIMER, K., and HAYNES, J.R. (1997). Enhancement of immunodeficiency virusspecific immune responses in DNA-immunized rhesus macaques. Vaccine 15, 924-926.
36. GARDNER, J.P., FROLOV, I., PERRI, S., JI, Y., MACKICHAN, M.L., ZUR MEGEDE, J., CHEN, M., BELLI, B.A., DRIVER, D.A., SHERRILL, S., et al. (2000). Infection of human dendritic cells by a sindbis virus replicon vector is determined by a single amino acid substitution in the E2 glycoprotein. J. Virol. 74, 11849-11857.
37. GERMAIN, R.N., CASTELLINO, F., HAN, R., REIS e SOUSA, C., ROMAGNOLI, P., SADEGH-NASSERI, S., and ZHONG, G.M. (1996). Processing and presentation of endocytically acquired protein antigens by MHC class II and class I molecules. Immunol. Rev. 151, 5-30.
38. GILBOA, E., NAIR, S.K., and LYERLY, H.K. (1998). Immunotherapy of cancer with dendritic-cell-based vaccines. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 46, 82-87.
39. GOLDMAN, F., CRABTREE, J., HOLLENBACK, C., and KORETZKY, G. (1997). Sequestration of p56(lck) by gp120, a model for TCR desensitization. J. Immunol. 158, 2017-2024.
40. + T cells from HIV-1-infected individuals. J. Immunol. 165, 6620-6626.
41. GRANSTEIN, R.D., DING, W., and OZAWA, H. (2000). Induction of anti-tumor immunity with epidermal cells pulsed with tumor-derived RNA or intradermal administration of RNA. J. Invest. Dermatol. 114, 632-636.
42. HAHN, C.S., HAHN, Y.S., BRACIALE, T.J., and RICE, C.M. (1992). Infectious Sindbis virus transient expression vectors for studying antigen processing and presentation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 2679-2683.
43. HARDING, C.V. (1996). Class I MHC presentation of exogenous antigens. J. Clin. Immunol. 16, 90-96.
44. HARIHARAN, M.J., DRIVER, D.A., TOWNSEND, K., BRUMM, D., POLO, J.M., BELLI, B.A., CATTON, D.J., HSU, D., MITTELSTAEDT, D., MCCORMACK, J.E., et al. (1998). DNA immunization against herpes simplex virus: enhanced efficacy using a Sindbis virus-based vector. J. Virol. 72, 950-958.
45. HEISER, A., MAURICE, M.A., YANCEY, D.R., COLEMAN, D.M., DAHM, P., and VIEWEG, J. (2001). Human dendritic cells transfected with renal tumor RNA stimulate polyclonal T-cell responses against antigens expressed by primary and metastatic tumors. Cancer Research. 61, 3388-3393.
46. HIRAO, M., ONAI, N., HIROISHI, K., WATKINS, S.C., MATSUSHIMA, K., ROBBINS, P.D., LOTZE, M.T., and TAHARA, H. (2000). CC chemokine receptor-7 on dendritic cells is induced after interaction with apoptotic tumor cells: critical role in migration from the tumor site to draining lymph nodes. Cancer Res. 60, 2209-2217.
47. HOERR, I., OBST, R., RAMMENSEE, H.G., and JUNG, G. (2000). in vivo application of RNA leads to induction of specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes and antibodies. Eur. J. Immunol. 30, 1-7.
48. HUBERT, P., BISMUTH, G., KORNER, M., and DEBRE, P. (1995). HIV-1 glycoprotein gp120 disrupts CD4-p56lck/CD3-T cell receptor interactions and inhibits CD3 signaling. Eur. J. Immunol. 25, 1417-1425.
49. ITO, T., AMAKAWA, R., INABA, M., IKEHARA, S., INABA, K., and FUKUHARA, S. (2001). Differential regulation of human blood dendritic cell subsets by IFNs. J. Immunol. 166, 2961-2969.
50. IWASAKI, A., and KELSALL, B.L. (2000). Localization of distinct Peyer's patch dendritic cell subsets and their recruitment by chemokines macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-3alpha, MIP-3beta, and secondary lymphoid organ chemokine. J. Exp. Med. 191, 1381-1394.
51. JABADO, N., PALLIER, A., LE DEIST, F., BERNARD, F., FISCHER, A., and HIVROZ, C. (1997). CD4 ligands inhibit the formation of multifunctional transduction complexes involved in T cell activation. J. Immunol. 158, 94-103.
52. KAECH, S.M., WHERRY, E.J., and AHMED, R. (2002). Effector and memory T-cell differentiation: implications for vaccine development. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2, 251-262.
53. KAWAKAMI, S., SATO, A., NISHIKAWA, M., YAMASHITA, F., and HASHIDA, M. (2000). Mannose receptor-mediated gene transfer into macrophages using novel mannosylated cationic liposomes. Gene Ther. 7, 292-299.
54. KIM, J.J., and WEINER, D.B. (1999). Development of multicomponent DNA vaccination strategies against HIV. Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther. 1, 43-49.
55. KOIDO, S., KASHIWABA, M., CHEN, D., GENDLER, S., KUFE, D., and GONG, J. (2000). Induction of antitumor immunity by vaccination of dendritic cells transfected with MUC1 RNA. J. Immunol. 165, 5713-5719.
56. KRENSKY, A.M. (1997). The HLA system, antigen processing and presentation. Kidney Int. 58(Suppl), S2-S7.
57. KUNDU, S.K., ENGLEMAN, E., BENIKE, C., SHAPERO M.H., DUPUIS, M., VAN SCHOOTEN, W.C., EIBL, M., and MERIGAN, T.C. (1998). A pilot clinical trial of HIV antigen-pulsed allogeneic and autologous dendritic cell therapy in HIV-infected patients. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 14, 551-560.
58. LANZAVECCHIA, A. (1996). Mechanisms of antigen uptake for presentation. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 8, 348-354.
59. LECHLER, R., AICHINGER, G., and LIGHTSTONE, L. (1996). The endogenous pathway of MHC class II antigen presentation. Immunol. Rev. 151, 51-79.
60. LEITNER, W.W., SEGUIN, M.C., BALLOU, W.R., SEITZ, J.P., SCHULTZ, A.M., SHEEHY, M.J., and LYON, J.A. (1997). Immune responses induced by intramuscular or gene gun injection of protective deoxyribonucleic acid vaccines that express the circumsporozoite protein from Plasmodium berghei malaria parasites. J. Immunol. 159, 6112-6119.
61. LIU, Y.J., KANZLER, H., SOUMELIS, V., and GILLIET, M. (2001). Dendritic cell lineage, plasticity and cross-regulation. Nat. Immunol. 2, 585-589.
62. LONDON, S.D., SCHMALJOHN, A.L., DALRYMPLE, J.M., and RICE, C.M. (1992). Infectious enveloped RNA virus antigenic chimeras. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 207-211.
63. LUDEWIG, B., OCHSENBEIN, A.F., ODERMATT, B., PAULIN, D., HENGARTNER, H., and ZINKERNAGEL, R.M. (2000). Immunotherapy with dendritic cells directed against tumor antigens shared with normal host cells results in severe autoimmune disease. J. Exp. Med. 191, 795-804.
64. MAFFEI, A., PAPADOPOULOS, K., and HARRIS, P.E. (1997). MHC class I antigen processing pathways. Hum. Immunol. 54, 91-103.
65. MANDL, C.W., ABERLE, J.H., ABERLE, S.W., HOLZMANN, H., ALLISON, S.L., and HEINZ, F.X. (1998). in vitro-synthesized infectious RNA as an attenuated live vaccine in a flavivirus model. Nat. Med. 4, 1438-1440.
66. MARTINON, F., KRISHNAN, S., LENZEN, G., MAGNE, R., GOMARD, E., GUILLET, J.G., LEVY, J.P., and MEULIEN, P. (1993). Induction of virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in vivo by liposome-entrapped mRNA. Eur. J. Immunol. 23, 1719-1722.
67. MAYORDOMO, J.I., LOFTUS, D.J., SAKAMOTO, H., DE CESARE, C.M., APPASAMY, P.M., LOTZE, M.T., STORKUS, W.J., APPELLA, E., and DELEO, A.B. (1996). Therapy of murine tumors with p53 wild-type and mutant sequence peptide-based vaccines. J. Exp. Med. 183, 1357-1365.
68. + T cell lines from naive precursors. Eur. J. Immunol. 25, 1206-1211.
69. + CTLs from naive precursors. J. Immunol. 153, 996-1003.
70. MORIO, T., CHATILA, T., and GEHA, R.S. (1997). HIV glycoprotein gp120 inhibits TCR-CD3-mediated activation of fyn and lck. Int. Immunol. 9, 53-64.
71. MOSSMAN, S.P., BEX, F., BERGLUND, P., ARTHOS, J., O'NEIL, S.P., RILEY, D., MAUL, D.H., BRUCK, C., MOMIN, P., BURNY, A., et al. (1996). Protection against lethal simian immunodeficiency virus SIVsmmPBj14 disease by a recombinant Semliki Forest virus gp160 vaccine and by a gp120 subunit vaccine. J. Virol. 70, 1953-1960.
72. NAGATA, T., UCHIJIMA, M., YOSHIDA, A., KAWASHIMA, M., and KOIDE, Y. (1999). Codon optimization effect on translational efficiency of DNA vaccine in mammalian cells: analysis of plasmid DNA encoding a CTL epitope derived from microorganisms. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 261, 445-451.
73. NAIR, S.K., BOCZKOWSKI, D., MORSE, M., CUMMING, R.I., LYERLY, H.K., and GILBOA, E. (1998). Induction of primary carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in vitro using human dendritic cells transfected with RNA. Nat. Biotechnol. 16, 364-369.
74. NAIR, S.K., HEISER, A., BOCZKOWSKI, D., MAJUMDAR, A., NAOE, M., LEBKOWSKI, J.S., VIEWEG, J., and GILBOA, E. (2000). Induction of cytotoxic T cell responses and tumor immunity against unrelated tumors using telomerase reverse transcriptase RNA transfected dendritic cells. Nat. Med. 6, 1011-1017.
75. NAIR, S.K., HULL, S., COLEMAN, D., GILBOA, E., LYERLY, H.K., and MORSE, M.A. (1999). Induction of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses in vitro using autologous dendritic cells loaded with CEA peptide or CEA RNA in patients with metastatic malignancies expressing CEA. Int. J. Cancer 82, 121-124.
76. NESTLE, F.O., ALIJAGIC, S., GILLIET, M., SUN, Y., GRABBE, S., DUMMER, R., BURG, G., and SCHADENDORF, D. (1998). Vaccination of melanoma patients with peptide- or tumor lysate-pulsed dendritic cells [see comments]. Nat. Med. 4, 328-332.
77. NI, H., CAPODICI, J., CANNON, G., COMMUNI, D., BOEYNAEMS, J.M., KARIKO, K., and WEISSMAN, D. (2002). Extracellular mRNA induces dendritic cell activation by stimulating tumor necrosis factor-alpha secretion and signaling through a nucleotide receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 12689-12696.
78. + T lymphocytes with HIV glycoprotein-expressing cells is mediated by caspases but bypasses CD95 (Fas/Apo-1) and TNF receptor 1. J. Immunol. 159, 5246-5252.
79. +) T lymphocytes. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 96, 2982-2987.
80. PECHER, G., SPAHN, G., SCHIRRMANN, T., KULBE, H., ZIEGNER, M., SCHENK, J.A., and SANDIG, V. (2001). Mucin gene (MUC1) transfer into human dendritic cells by cationic liposomes and recombinant adenovirus. Anticancer Res. 21, 2591-2596.
81. PERRI, S., DRIVER, D.A., GARDNER, J.P., SHERRILL, S., BELLI, B.A., DUBENSKY, JR., T.W., and POLO, J.M. (2000). Replicon vectors derived from Sindbis virus and Semliki forest virus that establish persistent replication in host cells. J. Virol. 74, 9802-9807.
82. PRAYAGA, S.K., FORD, M.J., and HAYNES, J.R. (1997). Manipulation of HIV-1 gp120-specific immune responses elicited via gene gun-based DNA immunization. Vaccine 15, 1349-1352.
83. QIU, P., ZIEGELHOFFER, P., SUN, J., and YANG, N.S. (1996). Gene gun delivery of mRNA in situ results in efficient transgene expression and genetic immunization. Gene Ther. 3, 262-268.
84. ROBINSON, H.L., MONTEFIORI, D.C., JOHNSON, R.P., MANSON, K.H., KALISH, M.L., LIFSON, J.D., RIZVI, T.A., LU, S., HU, S.L., MAZZARA, G.P., et al. (1999). Neutralizing antibody-independen t containment of immunodeficiency virus challenges by DNA priming and recombinant pox virus booster immunizations. Nat. Med. 5, 526-534.
85. ROSENBERG, S.A., and WHITE, D.E. (1996). Vitiligo in patients with melanoma: normal tissue antigens can be targets for cancer immunotherapy J. Immunother. Emphasis Tumor Immunol. 19, 81-84.
86. SCHLESINGER, S., and SCHLESINGER, M.J. (1996). Togaviridae: the viruses and their replication. In B.N. Fields, D.M. Knipe, and P.M. Howley, eds. Fields Virology, 34d ed, vol. 1. (Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, PA) p.p. 825-841.
87. SHIMIZU, Y., GUIDOTTI, L.G., FOWLER, P., and CHISARI, F.V. (1998). Dendritic cell immunization breaks cytotoxic T lymphocyte tolerance in hepatitis B virus transgenic mice. J. Immunol. 161, 4520-4529.
88. SOZZANI, S., ALLAVENA, P., VECCHI, A., and MANTOVANI, A. (2000). Chemokines and dendritic cell traffic. J. Clin. Innumol. 20, 151-160.
89. SOZZANI, S., ALLAVENA, P., VECCHI, A., and MANTOVANI, A. (1999). The role of chemokines in the regulation of dendritic cell trafficking. J. Leukoc. Biol. 66, 1-9.
90. STEINBRINK, K., PARAGNIK, L., JONULEIT, H., TUTING, T., KNOP, J., and ENK, A.H. (2000). Induction of dendritic cell maturation and modulation of dendritic cell-induced immune responses by prostaglandins. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 292, 437-445.
91. STEINMAN, R.M. (1991). The dendritic cell system and its role in immunogenicity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 9, 271-296.
92. +) T cell-dependent mechanism. Gene Ther. 8, 1255-1263.
93. TAMMA, S.M., CHIRMULE, N., MCCLOSKEY, T.W., OYAIZU, N., KALYANARAMAN, V.S., and PAHWA, S. (1997). Signals transduced through the CD4 molecule interfere with TCR/CD3-mediated ras activation leading to T cell anergy/apoptosis. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 85, 195-201.
94. TANG, D.C., DEVIT, M., and JOHNSTON, S.A. (1992). Genetic immunization is a simple method for eliciting an immune response. Nature. 356, 152-154.
95. + T cells in the absence of TCR co-stimulation. Int. Immunol. 8, 65-74.
96. TSENG, W.C., HASELTON, F.R., and GIORGIO, T.D. (1997). Transfection by cationic liposomes using simultaneous single cell measurements of plasmid delivery and transgene expression. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 25641-25647.
97. TUTING, T., WILSON, C.C., MARTIN, D.M., BAAR, J., DELEO, A., LOTZE, M.T., and SOTRKUS, W.J. (1998). DNA vaccines targeting dendritic cells for the immunotherapy of cancer. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 451, 295-304.
98. UCHIJIMA, M., YOSHIDA, A., NAGATA, T., and KOIDE, Y. (1998). Optimization of codon usage of plasmid DNA vaccine is required for the effective MHC class I-restricted T cell responses against an intracellular bacterium. J. Immunol. 161, 5594-5599.
99. ULMER, J.B., DONNELLY, J.J., PARKER, S.E., RHODES, G.H., FELGNER, P.L., DWARKI, V.J., GROMKOWSKI, S.H., DECK, R.R., DEWITT, C.M., and FRIEDMAN, A. (1993). Heterologous protection against influenza by injection of DNA encoding a viral protein. Science. 259, 1745-1749.
100. VAJDY, M., GARDNER, J., NEIDLEMAN, J., CUADRA, L., GREER, C., PERRI, S., O'HAGAN, D., and POLO, J.M. (2001). Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Gag-specific vaginal immunity and protection after local immunizations with sindbis virus-based replicon particles. J. Infec. Des. 184, 1613-1616.
101. VANDENABEELE, S., and WU, L. (1999). Dendritic cell origins: puzzles and paradoxes. Immunol. Cell Biol. 77, 411-419.
102. VASSILEV, V.B., GIL, L.H., and DONIS, R.O. (2001). Microparticlemediated RNA immunization against bovine viral diarrhea virus. Vaccine 19, 2012-2019.
103. VIGNUZZI, M., GERBAUD, S., VAN DER WERF, S., and ESCRIOU, N. (2001). Naked RNA immunization with replicons derived from poliovirus and Semliki Forest virus genomes for the generation of a cytotoxic T cell response against the influenza A virus nucleoprotein. J. Gen. Virol. 82, 1737-1747.
104. WANG, H., GRIFFITHS, M.N., BURTON, D.R., and GHAZAL, P. (2000). Rapid antibody responses by low-dose, single-step, dendritic cell-targeted immunization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 847-852.
105. WATTS, C. (1997). Capture and processing of exogenous antigens for presentation on MHC molecules. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 15, 821-850.
106. WEENINK, S.M., and GAUTAM, A.M. (1997). Antigen presentation by MHC class II molecules. Immunol. Cell Biol. 75, 69-81.
107. WEISSMAN, D., RABIN, R.L., ARTHOS, J., RUBBERT, A., DYBUL, M., SWOFFORD, R., FARBER, J.M., and FAUCI, A.S. (1997). Macrophage-tropic HIV and SIV envelope proteins induce a signal through the CCR5 chemokine receptor. Nature 389, 981-985.
108. WEISSMAN, D., NI, H., SCALES, D., DUDE, A., CAPODICI, J., MCGIBNEY, K., ABDOOL, A., ISAACS, S.N., CANNON, G., and KARIKO, K. (2000). HIV gag mRNA transfection of dendritic cells (DC) delivers encoded antigen to MHC class I and II molecules, causes DC maturation, and induces a potent human in vitro primary immune response. J. Immunol. 165, 4710-4717.
109. WOLFF, J., AMALONE, R.W., WILLIAMS, P., CHONG, W., ACSADI, G., JANI, A., and FELGNER, P.L. (1990). Direct gene transfer into mouse muscle in vivo. Science 247, 1465-1468.
110. YING, H., ZAKS, T.Z., WANG, R.F., IRVINE, K.R., KAMMULA, U.S., MARINCOLA, F.M., LEITNER, W.W., and RESTIFO, N.P. (1999). Cancer therapy using a self-replicating RNA vaccine. Nature Med. 5, 823-827.
111. + dendritic cells. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 2588-2592.
112. ZHOU, W.Z., HOON, D.S., HUANG, S.K., FUJII, S., HASHIMOTO, K., MORISHITA, R., and KANEDA, Y. (1999). RNA melanoma vaccine: induction of antitumor immunity by human glycoprotein 100 mRNA immunization. Hum. Gene Ther. 10, 2719-2724.