Present situation regarding development of an HIV vaccine;Situación actual en el desarrollo de una vacuna frente al virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana

Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiologia Clinica

Volumn 20, Issue 10, 2002, Pages 511-522

  Alcami, José ^a  

^a INSTITUTO DE SALUD CARLOS III   (Spain)

Author keywords

AIDS; HIV; Immune response; Vaccines; Viral escape

Indexed keywords

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS VACCINE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANTIVIRAL ACTIVITY; EPIDEMIC; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUMORAL IMMUNITY; IMMUNE RESPONSE; NONHUMAN; REVIEW;

EID: 0036906008     PISSN: 0213005X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/s0213-005x(02)72855-3     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. Nossal GJV. The global alliance for vaccines and immunization: A millennial challenge. Nature Immunol 2000;1:1-8.
2. Abdool-Karim SS. Globalization, ethics, and AIDS vaccines. Science 2000;288:2129.
3. Esparza J, Bhamarapravati N. Accelerating the development and future availability of HIV-1 vaccines: Why, when, where, and how? Lancet 2000; 355:2061-6.
4. Nabel GJ. Challenges and opportunities for development of an AIDS vaccines. Nature 2001;410:1002-6.
5. Corey L. HIV preventive vaccines: Science and politics. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 143].
6. Piot P. Global AIDS epidemic: Time to turn the tide. Science 2000;228:2176-8.
7. Cohen J. South Africa's new enemy. Science 2000;228:2168-70.
8. WHO. UNAIDS Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic. Genève: WHO, 2002.
9. Zinkernagel R and Doherty P. MHC-restricted cytotoxic T-cells: Studies on the biological role ofmajor transplantation antigens determining T-cell restriction-specificity, function and responsiveness. Adv Immunol 2000;27: 51-177.
10. Janeway CA Jr, Travers P, Walport M, Donald J. Inmunobiología. El Sistema Inmunitario en Condiciones de Salud y Enfermedad. Barcelona: Masson, 2000.
11. Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM. Virology. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1996.
12. Robert-Guroff M, Brown M, Gallo RC. HTLV-III-neutralizing antibodies in patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex. Nature 1985;316:72-4.
13. Nabel GJ, Sullivan J. Antibodies and resistance to natural HIV infection N Engl J Med 2000;343:17-9.
14. Bandrés JC, Zolla-Pazner S. Inmunidad humoral en la infección por el VIH. En: González J, Moreno S, Rubio R, editors. Infección por el VIH 1999. Madrid: Doyma, 1999.
15. Igarashi T. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 neutralizing antibodies accelerate clearance of cell-free virions from blood plasma. Nat Med 1999;5: 211-6.
16. Shibata R. Neutralizing antibody directed against the HIV-1 envelope glucoprotein can completely block HIV-1/SIV chimeric virus infections of macaque monkeys. Nat Med 1999;5:204-10.
17. Mascola JR, Stiegler G, VanCott TC, Katinger H, Carpenter CB, Hanson CE, et al. Protection of macaques against vaginal transmission of a pathogenic HIV-1/SIV chimeric virus by passive infusion of neutralizing antibodies. Nat Med 2000;6:207-10.
18. Baba TW, Liska V, Hofmann-Lehmann R, Vlasak J, Xu W, Ayehunie S, et al. Human neutralizing monoclonal antibodies of the IgG1 subtype protect against mucosal simian-human immunodeficiency virus infection. Nat Med 2000;6:200-6.
19. Richman DD, Wrin T, Little S, Petropoulos C. Rapid evolution of the neutralizing antibody response following primary HIV infection. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 1051].
20. Robinson HL, Montefiori DC, Johnson RP, Manson KH, Kalish ML, Lifson JD, et al. Neutralizing antibody-independent containment of immunodeficiency virus challenges by DNA priming and recombinant pox virus booster immunizations. Nat Med 1999;5:526-34.
21. Poignard P. Neutralizing antibodies have limited effects on the control of established HIV-1 infections in vivo. Immunity 1999;10:431-8.
22. Moore JP, Burton DR. HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies: How full is the bottle? Nat Med 1999;5:142-4.
23. Sattentau Q. Neutralization of HIV-1 by antibody. Curr Opin Immunol 1996;8:540-5.
24. Burton DR. A vaccine for HIV type 1: The antibody perspective. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:10018-23.
25. Burton DR. Opinion: Antibodies, viruses and vaccines. Nat Rev Immunol 2002;2:706-13.
26. Burton D. Human neutralizing antibodies and a vaccine for HIV-1. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 201].
27. Wyatt R, Sodroski J. The HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins: Fusogens, antigens, and immunogens. Science 1998;280:1884-8.
28. Desrosiers R. Factors that determine neutralization resistance of SIV: Are there lessons to be learned on how to elicit antibodies with broadly neutralizing activity against primary isolates of HIV-1 XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 209]
29. Scanlan CN, Pantophlet R, Wormald MR, Ollmann Saphire E, Stanfield R, Wilson IA, et al. The broadly neutralizing anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody 2G12 recognizes a cluster of alphal- > 2 mannose residues on the outer face of gp120. J Virol 2002;76:7306-21.
30. Moulard M, Phogat SK, Shu Y, Labrijn AF, Xiao X, Binley JM, et al. Broadly cross-reactive HIV-1-neutralizing human monoclonal Fab selected for binding to gp120-CD4-CCR5 complexes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99: 6913-8.
31. Zwick MB, Wang M, Poignard P, Stiegler G, Katinger H, Burton DR, et al. Neutralization synergy of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 primary isolates by cocktails of broadly neutralizing antibodies. J Virol 2001;75: 12198-208.
32. Zwick MB, Labrijn AF, Wang M, Spenlehauer C, Saphire EO, Binley JM, et al. Broadly neutralizing antibodies targeted to the membrane-proximal external region of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 glycoprotein gp41. J Virol 2001;75:10892-905.
33. McMichael AJ, Rowland-Jones SL. Cellular immune responses to HIV. Nature 2001;410:980-7.
34. Ogg GS, Jin X, Bonhoeffe S, Dunbar RP, Nowak MA, Monard S, et al. Quantitation of HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes and plasma load of viral RNA. Science 1998;279:2103-6.
35. Rosenberg ES, Billingsley JM, Caliendo AM, Boswell SL, Sax PE, Kalams SA, et al. Vigorous HIV-1-specific CD4+ T cell responses associated with control of viremia. Science 1997;278:1447-50.
36. Rosenberg ES, Altfeld M, Poon SH, Phillips MN, Wilkes BM, Eldridge RL, et al. Immune control of HIV-1 after early treatment of acute infection. Nature 2000;407:523-6.
37. Ghanekar SA, Stranford SA, Ong JC, Walker JM, Maino VC, Levy JA. Decreased HIV-specific CD4 T cell proliferation in long-term HIV-infected individuals on antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2001;15:1885-7.
38. Pitcher CJ. HIV-1-specific CD4+ T cells are detectable in most individuals with active HIV-1 infection, but decline with prolonged viral suppression. Nature Med 1999;5:518-25.
39. Gray CM. Frequency of class I HLA-restricted anti-HIV CD8+ T cells in individuals receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). J Immunol 1999;162:1780-8.
40. Ortiz GM, Nixon DF, Trkola A. HIV-1-specific immune responses in subjects who temporarily contain virus replication after discontinuation of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Clin Invest 1999;104:R13-8.
41. Garcia F, Plana M, Vidal C, Cruceta A, O'Brien WA, Pantaleo G, et al. Dynamics of viral load rebound and immunological changes after stopping effective antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 1999;13:F79-86.
42. Richman D. The challenge of immune control of immunodeficiency virus. J Clin Invest 1999;104:677-8.
43. Musey L, Hughes J, Schacker T, Shea T, Corey L, McElrath MJ. Control of viremia in simian immunodeficiency virus infection by CD8+ lymphocytes. Science 1999;283:857-60.
44. Jin X, Bauer DE, Tuttleton SE, Lewin S, Gettie A, Blanchard J, et al. Dramatic rise in plasma viremia after CD8(+) T cell depletion in simian immunodeficiency virus-infected macaques. J Exp Med 1999;189:991-8.
45. Metzner KJ, Jin X, Lee FV, Gettie A, Bauer DE, Di Mascio M, et al. Effects of in vivo CD8(+) T cell depletion on virus replication in rhesus macaques immunized with a live, attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus vaccine. J Exp Med 2000;191:1921-31.
46. Walker CM, Moody DJ, Stites DP, Levy JA. CD8+ lymphocytes can control HIV infection in vitro by suppressing virus replication. Science 1986;234: 1563-6.
47. Yang OO, Kalams SA, Trocha A, Cao H, Luster A, Johnson RP, et al. Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication by CD8+ cells: Evidence for HLA class I-restricted triggering of cytolytic and noncytolytic mechanisms. J Virol 1997;71:3120-8.
48. Mackewicz CE, Blackbourn DJ, Levy JA. CD8+ T cells suppress human immunodeficiency virus replication by inhibiting viral transcription. Proc. Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:2308-12.
49. Le Borgne S, Fevrier M, Callebaut C. CD8(+)-cell antiviral factor activity is not restricted to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-specific T cells and can block HIV replication after initiation of reverse transcription. J Virol 2000;74:4456-64.
50. Cocchi F, DeVico AL, Garzino-Demo A, Arya SK, Gallo RC, Lusso P. Identification of RANTES, MIP-1 alpha, and MIP-1 beta as the major HIV-suppressive factors produced by CD8+ T cells. Science 1995;270:1811-5.
51. Oberlin E, Amara A, Bachelerie F. The CXC chemokine SDF-1 is the ligand for LESTR/fusin and prevents infection by T-cell-line-adapted HIV-1. Nature 1996;382:833-5.
52. Agace WW, Amara A, Roberts AI. Constitutive expression of stromal derived factor-1 by mucosal epithelia and its role in HIV transmission and propagation. Curr Biol 2000;10:325-8.
53. Bermejo M, Martin Serrano J, Alonso J, Pablos JL, Gamallo C, Arenzana F, et al. SDF-1 production by dendritic cells and regulation of CXCR4 in T lymphocytes. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 1137].
54. Barker E, Bossart KN, Levy JA. Primary CD8+ cells from HIV-infected individuals can suppress productive infection of macrophages independent of beta-chemokines. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:1725-9.
55. Lacey SF, McDanal CB, Horuk R, Greenberg ML. The CXC chemokine stromal cell-derived factor I is not responsible for CD8+ T cell suppression of syncytia-inducing strains of HIV-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:9842-7.
56. Zhang L, Yu W, He T, Yu J, Caffrey RE, Dalmasso E, et al. Contribution of human α-Defensin-1, -2 and -3 to the anti-HIV activity of CD8 antiviral factor. Science. 2002 Sep 26 [epub ahead of print. www.sciencexpress.org.]
57. Rowland-Jones S, Sutton J, Ariyoshi K, Dong T, Gotch F, McAdam S, et al. HIV-specific cytotoxic T-cells in HIV-exposed but uninfected Gambian women. Nat Med 1995;1:59-64.
58. Kaul R, Rowland-Jones S, Kimani J, Fowke K, Dong T, Kiama P, et al. New insights into HIV-1 specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses in exposed, persistently seronegative Kenyan sex workers. Immunol Lett 2001;79:3-13.
59. Kaul R, Rowland-Jones SL, Kimani J, Dong T, Yang HB, Kiama P, et al. Late seroconversion in HIV-resistant Nairobi prostitutes despite pre-existing HIV-specific CD8+ responses. J Clin Invest 2001;107:341-9.
60. Mazzoli S, Trabattoni D, Lo Caputo S, Clerici MI. HIV-specific mucosal and cellular immunity in HIV-seronegative partners of HIV-seropositive individuals. Nature Med 1997;3:1250-7.
61. Devito C, Broliden K, Kaul R, Stevensson L, Johansen K, Kiama P, et al. Mucosal and plasma IgA from HIV-1-exposed uninfected individuals inhibit HIV-1 transcytosis across human epithelial cells J Immunol 2000;165:5170-6.
62. Cao Y, Quin L, Safrit J. Virologic and immunologic characterization of the long term survivors of HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med 1995;332:201-8.
63. Pantaleo G, Menzo S, Vaccarezza M. Studies in subjects with long-term non progressive HIV infection. N Engl J Med 1995;332:209-16.
64. Rinaldo C, Huang XL, Fan ZF, Ding M, Beltz L, Logar A, et al. High levels of anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) memory cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity and low viral load are associated with lack of disease in HIV-1-infected long-term nonprogressors. J Virol 1995;69:5838-42.
65. Klein, MR, Van Baalen CA, Holwerda AM, Kerkhof SR, Garde RJ, Bende IP et al. Kinetics of Gag-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses during the clinical course of HIV-1 infection: A longitudinal analysis of rapid progressors and long-term asymptomatics. J Exp Med 1995;181:1365-72.
66. Musey L, Hughes J, Schacker T, Shea T, Corey L, McElrath MJ. Cytotoxic-T-cell responses, viral load, and disease progression in early human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1267-74.
67. Autran B. Immune responses in long term non progressors. Lessons for Immune Reconstitution XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 199].
68. Brander C, Walker BD. T lymphocyte responses in HIV-1 infection: Implications for vaccine development. Curr Opin Immunol 1999;11:451-9.
69. Pantaleo G, Soudeyns H, Demarest F. Evidence for a rapid disappearance of initially expanded HIV-specific CD8+ T cell clone during primary HIV infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:9848-53.
70. Goulder PJ, Altfeld MA, Rosenberg ES, Nguyen T, Tang Y, Eldridge RL, et al. Substantial differences in specificity of HIV-specific cytotoxic T cells in acute and chronic HIV infection. J Exp Med 2001;193:181-94.
71. Ghanekar SA, Stranford SA, Ong JC, Walker JM, Maino VC, Levy JA. Decreased HIV-specific CD4 T cell proliferation in long-term HIV-infected individuals on antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2001;15:1885-7.
72. O'Connor D, Hallen TM, Vogel TU, Jing P, DeSouza IP, Dodds E, et al. Acute phase citotoxic T lymphocyte escape is a hallmarg of simian immunodeficiency virus infection. Nature Med 2002;8:493-9.
73. Holguin A, Rodes B, Soriano V. Recombinant human immunodeficiency viruses type 1 circulating in Spain. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:505-11.
74. Thomson MM, Villahermosa ML, Vazquez-de-Parga E. Widespread circulation of a B/F intersubtype recombinant form among HIV-1-infected individuals in Buenos Aires, Argentina. AIDS 2000;14:897-9.
75. Van der Groen G, Nyambi PN, Beirnaert E, Davis D, Fransen K, Heyndrickx L, et al. Genetic variation of HIV type 1: Relevance of interclade variation to vaccine development. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1998;14(Suppl 3):S211-21.
76. Workshop Report from the European Commission (DG XII, INCO-DC) and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS HIV-1 subtypes: Implications for epidemiology, pathogenicity, vaccines and diagnostics. AIDS 1997;11:UNAIDS17-UNAIDS36.
77. Stahl-Hennig C, Steinman RM, Tenner-Racz K, Pope M, Stolte N, Mätz-Rensing K, et al. Rapid infection of oral mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue with simian immunodeficiency virus. Science 1999;285:1261-5.
78. Haase AT. Population biology of HIV-1 infection: Viral and CD4+ T cell demographics and dynamics in lymphatic tissues. Annu Rev Immunol 1999; 17:625-56.
79. Zhang L, Ramratnam B, Tenner-Racz K, He Y, Vesanen M, Lewin S, et al. Quantifying residual HIV-1 replication in patients receiving combination antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1605-13.
80. Furtado MR, Callaway DS, Phair JP, Kunstman KJ, Stanton JL, Macken CA, et al. Persistence of HIV-1 transcription in peripheral-blood mononuclear cells in patients receiving potent antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1614-22.
81. Pomerantz RJ. Residual HIV-1 Disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1625.
82. Finzi D, Blankson J, Siliciano JD, Margolick JB, Chadwick K, Pierson T, et al. Latent infection of CD4+ T cells provides a mechanism for lifelong persistence of HIV-1, even in patients on effective combination therapy. Nat Med 1999;5:512-7.
83. Blankson JN, Persaud D, Siliciano RF. The challenge of viral reservoirs in HIV-1 infection. Annu Rev Med 2002;53:557-93.
84. Geijtenbeek TB, Kwon DS, Torensma R, Van Vliet SJ, Van Duijnhouen GC, Middel J, et al. DC-SIGN, a dendritic cell-specific HIV-1-binding protein that enhances trans-infection of T cells. Cell 2000;100:587-97.
85. Förster R, Schubel A, Breitfeld D, Kremmer E, Renner-Muller I, Wolf E, et al. CCR7 Coordinates the Primary Immune Response by Establishing Functional Microenvironments in Secondary Lymphoid Organs. Cell 1999;99:23-33.
86. Douek DC, Brenchley JM, Betts MR, Ambrozak DR, Hill BJ, Okamoto Y, et al. HIV preferentially infects HIV-specific CD4+ T cells. Nature 2002;417:95-8.
87. Siliciano R. Prospects for eradication or long-term control of HIV infection. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 103].
88. Daniel MD, Kirchhoff F, Czajak SC, Sehgal PK, Desrosiers RC. Protective effects of a live attenuated SIV vaccine with a deletion in the nef gene. Science 1992;258:1938-41.
89. Murphey-Corb ML. Inactivated whole SIV vaccine confers protection in macaques. Science 1989;246:1293-7.
90. Almond N, Rose J, Sangster R, Silvera P, Stebbings B, Walker, et al. Mechanisms of protection induced by attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus. Protection cannot be transferred by human serum. J Gen Virol 1997;78:1919-22.
91. Gauduin MC, Glickman RL, Means R, Johnson RP. Inhibition of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) replication by CD8+ T lymphocytes from macaques immunized with live attenuated SIV. J Virol 1998;72:6315-24.
92. Johnson RP, Glickman RL, Yang JQ, Kaur A, Dion JT, Mulligan MJ, et al. Induction of vigorous cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses by live attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus. J Virol 1997;71:7711-8.
93. Desrosiers RC, Lifson JD, Gibbs JS, Czajak SC, Howe AY, Arthur LO, et al. Identification of highly attenuated mutants of simian immunodeficiency virus. J Virol 1998;72:1431-7.
94. Learmont JC, Geczy AF, Mills J, Ashton LJ, Raynes-Greenow CH, Garsia RJ, et al. Immunologic and virologic status after 14 to 18 years of infection with an attenuated strain of HIV-1: A report from the Sydney Blood Bank Cohort N Engl J Med 1999;340:1715-21.
95. Dyer WB, Ogg GS, Demoitie MA. Strong human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-) specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity in Sydney Blood Bank Cohort patients infected with nef-defective HIV type 1. J Virol 1999;73: 436-43.
96. Deacon NJ, Tsykin A, Solomon A, et al. Genomic structure of an attenuated quasi species of HIV-1 from a blood transfusion donor and recipients. Science 1995;270:988-91.
97. Oelrichs R, Tsykin A, Rhodes D, Solomon A, Ellet A, McPhee D, et al. Genomic sequence of HIV type 1 from four members of the Sydney Blood Bank Cohort of long-term nonprogressors. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1998;14: 811-914.
98. Desrosiers RC. Yes, it is time to consider use of a live-attenuated virus vaccine against HIV-1. En: Controversies in science: A live-virus AIDS vaccine? J NIH Res 1994;6:1-4.
99. Baba TW, Liska V, Khimani AH. Live-attenuated, multiply deleted SIV causes AIDS in infants and adult macaques. Nat Med 1995;5:194-203.
100. Greenough TC, Sullivan L, Desrosiers RC. Declining CD4 T-cell counts in a person infected with nef-deleted HIV-1. N Engl J Med 1999;340:236-7.
101. Sawai ET, Hamza MS, Ye M, Shaw KE, Luciw PA. Pathogenic conversion of live attenuated SIV vaccine is associated with expression of truncated Nef. J Virol 2000;74:2038-45.
102. Ruprecht RM, Baba TW, Liska V, Ayehunie S, Andersen J, Montefiori DC, et al. Attenuated HIV vaccine: Caveats. Science 1996;271:1790-2.
103. Cohen J. Weakened SIV vaccine still kills. Science 1997;278:24-5.
104. Murphey-Corb ML. Inactivated whole SIV vaccine confers protection in macaques. Science 1989;246:1293-47.
105. Francis DP, Gregory T, McElrath MJ. Advancing AIDSVAX to phase 3. Safety, immunogencity, and plans for phase 3. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1998;14:25-31.
106. Mascola JR, Snyder SW, Weislow OSI. Immunization with envelope subunit vaccine products elicits neutralizing antibodies against laboratoryadapted but not primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis 1996;173:34-48.
107. Bolognesi DP, Matthews TJ. HIV vaccines. Viral envelope fails to deliver? Nature 1998;391:38-9.
108. Nitayaphan S, Brown AE. Preventive HIV vaccine development in Thailand. AIDS 1998;S1:55-61.
109. Berman PW, Huang W, Riddle L. Development of bivalent (B/E) vaccines able to neutralize CCR5-dependent viruses from the United States and Thailand. Virology 1999;265:1-917.
110. Gallo RC. Tat as one key to HIV-induced immune pathogenesis and Tat toxoid as an important component of a vaccine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:8324-6.
111. Cafaro A, Caputo A, Fracasso C, Maggiorella MT, Goletti D, Baroncelli S, et al. Control of SHIV-89.6P-infection of cynomolgus monkeys by HIV-1 Tat protein vaccine. Nat Med 1999;5:643-50.
112. Caselli E, Betti M, Grossi MP, Balboni PG, Rossi C, Boarini C, et al. DNA immunization with HIV-1 tat mutated in the trans activation domain induces humoral and cellular immune responses against wild-type Tat. J Immunol 1999;162:5631-8.
113. Osterhaus AD, Van Baalen CA, Gruters RA, Schutten M, Siebelink CH, Hulskotte EG, et al. Vaccination with Rev and Tat against AIDS. Vaccine 1999;17:2713-4.
114. Gringeri A, Santagostino E, Muça-Perja M, Le Buanec H, Bizzini B, Lachgar A, et al. Tat toxoid as a component of a preventive vaccine in seronegative subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1999;20:371-5.
115. Pauza CD, Trivedi P, Wallace M, Ruckwardt TJ, Le Buanec H, Lu W, et al. Vaccination with tat toxoid attenuates disease in simian/HIV-challenged macaques. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:3515-9.
116. Bukawa H, Sekigawa K, Hamajima K, Fajushima J, Yamada Y, Kiyono H, et al. Neutralization of HIV-1 by secretory IgA induced by oral immunization with a new macromolecular multicomponent peptide vaccine candidate. Nature Med 995;1:681-5.
117. Evans TG, Keefer MC, Weinhold KJ, Wolff M, Montefiori D, Gorse GJ, et al. A canarypox vaccine expressing multiple human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genes given alone or with rgp120 elicits broad and durable CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in seronegative volunteers. J Infect Dis 1999;180:290-308.
118. Tartaglia J, Excler J-L, El Habib R, Limbach K, Meignier B, Plotkin S, et al. Canarypox virus-based vaccines: Prime-boost strategies to induce cell-mediated and humoral immunity against HIV. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1998;14(Suppl 3):S291-S8.
119. Hanke T, Samuel RV, Blanchard TJ, Neumann VC, Allen TM, Boyson JE, et al. Effective induction of simian immunodeficiency virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in macaques by using a multiepitope gene and DNA prime-modified vaccinia virus ankara boost vaccination regimen. J Virol 1999;73:7524-32.
120. Seth A, Ourmanov I, Schmitz JE, Kuroda MJ, Lifton MA, Nickerson CE, Wyatt L, et al. Immunization with a modified vaccinia virus expressing simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) Gag-Pol primes for an anamnestic Gag-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response and is associated with reduction of viremia after SIV challenge. J Virol 2000;74:2502-9.
121. Shiver JW, Fu TM, Chen L, Casimiro DR, Davis ME, Evans RK, et al. Replication-incompetent adenoviral vaccine vector elicits effective anti-immunodeficiency-virus immunity. Nature 2002;415:331-5.
122. Trono D. Lentiviral vectors: Turning a deadly foe into a therapeutic agent. Gene Ther 2000;7:20-3.
123. Davis NL, Caley IJ, Brown KW, Bett MR, Irlbeck DM, McGrath KM, et al. Vaccination of macaques against pathogenic simian immunodeficiency virus with Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicon particles. J Virol 2000;74:371-8.
124. Chen X, Scala G, Quinto I, Liu W, Chun T-W, Shaw J, et al. Protection of rhesus macaques against disease progression from pathogenic SHIV-89.6PD by vaccination with phage-displayed HIV-1 epitopes. Nature Med 2001;7:1225-31.
125. Kameoka M, Nishino Y, Matsuo K, Ohara N, Kimura T, Yamazaki A, et al. T lymphocyte response in mice induced by a recombinant BCG vaccination which produces an extracellular alpha antigen that fused with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope immun-odominant domain in the V3 loop. Vaccine 1994;12:153-8.
126. Honda M, Matsuo K, Nakasone T, Okamoto Y, Yoshizaki H, Kitamura K, et al. Protective immune responses induced by secretion of a chimeric soluble protein from a recombinant Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin vector candidate vaccine for human immun-odeficiency virus type 1 in small animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:10693-7.
127. Robinson H. Working towards an AIDS Vaccine. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 212].
128. Boyer JD, Kim J, Ugen KI. HIV-1 DNA vaccines and chemokines. Vaccine 1999;17(Suppl 2):S536-S40.
129. Boyer JD, Cohen AD, Vogt S. Vaccination of seronegative volunteers with a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 env/rev DNA vaccine induces antigen-specific proliferation and lymphocyte production of β-chemokines. J Infect Dis 2000;181:476-83.
130. Barouch DH, Santra S, Schmitz J, Kuroda A. Augmentation of immune responses to HIV-1 and simian immunodeficiency virus DNA vaccines by IL-2/Ig plasmid administration in rhesus monkeys. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:4192-7.
131. Barouch DH, Santra S, Schmitz J, Kuroda A, Fu T-M, Wagner W, et al. Control of viremia and prevention of clinical AIDS in rhesus monkeys by cytokine-augmented DNA vaccination. Science 2000;290:486-92.
132. Cox JC, Coulter AR. Adjuvants a classification and a review of their modes of action. Vaccine 1997;15:248-56.
133. Hanke T, McMichael A. Pre-clinical development of a multi-CTL epitope-based DNA prime MVA boost vaccine for AIDS. Immunol Lett 1999; 66:177-81.
134. McMichael A. DNA/MVA prime boost for an A clade vaccine. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 208].
135. Salk J. Prospects for the control of AIDS by immunizing seropositive individuals. Nature 1987;327:473-6.
136. Hoff R, McNamara J. Therapeutic vaccines for preventing AIDS: Their use with HAART. Lancet 199;353:1723-4.
137. Sandström E, Wahren B. Therapeutic immunisation with recombinant gp160 in HIV-1 infection: A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Nordic VAC-04 Study Group. Lancet 1999;353:1735-42.
138. Goebel FD, Mannhalter JW, Belshe RB. Recombinant gp160 as a therapeutic vaccine for HIV-infection: Results of a large randomized, controlled trial. AIDS 1999;13:1461-8.
139. Birx DL, Loomis-Price LD, Aronson N. Efficacy testing of recombinant human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) gp160 as a therapeutic vaccine in early-stage HIV-1-infected volunteers. J Infect Dis 2000;181:881-9.
140. Levine AM, Groshen S, Allen J. Initial studies on active immunization of HIV-1 infected subjects using a gp120-depleted HIV-1 immunogen: Long-term follow-up. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1996;11:351-64.
141. Moss RB, Ferre F, Levine A. Viral load, CD4 percentage, and delayed-type hypersensitivity in subjects receiving the HIV-1 immunogen and antiviral drug therapy. J Clin Immunol 1996;16:266-71.
142. Kahn JO, Cherng DB, Mayer K, Murray H, Lagakos S and the 806 Investigator team. Evaluation of HIV-1 Immunogen, an Immunologic Modifier, Administered to Patients Infected Whith HIV Having 300 to 549 x 106/L CD4 counts. Jama 2000;284:17, 2193-202.
143. Diaz L, Podzamczer D, Canto-Nogues C, Rodriguez-Sainz MC, Carbone S, Moreno S, et al. 3-Year evaluation of a therapeutic vaccine (HIV-1 immunogen) administred with antiretrovirals versus antiretroviral therapy alone in patients with HIV chronic infection. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 1482].
144. Robinson H. Working towards an AIDS vaccine. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 212].
145. Corey L. HIV preventive vaccines: Science and politics. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 143].
146. Anderson RM, Garnett GP. Low-efficacy HIV vaccines: Potential for community-based intervention programmes. Lancet 1996;348:1010-3.
147. Vermund SH. Rationale for the testing and use of a partially effective HIV vaccine. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1998;14(Suppl 3):S321-S3.
148. Anderson R. Impact of a partially effective vaccine. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 133].
149. Ferrari G, Humphrey W, McElrath MJ. Clade B-based HIV-1 vaccines elicit cross-clade cytotoxic T lymphocyte reactivities in uninfected volunteers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:396-401.
150. Verrier F, Burda S, Belshe R, Duliege Am, Excler JL, Klein M, et al. A human immunodeficiency virus prime-boost immunization regimen in humans induces antibodies that show interclade cross-reactivity and neutralize several X4-, R5-, and dualtropic clade B and C primary isolates. J Virol 2000;74:10025-33.
151. LaCasse RA, Follis KE, Trahey M, Scarborough JD, Littman DR, Nunberg JH. Fusion-competent vaccines: Broad neutralization of primary isolates of HIV. Science 1999;283:357-62.
152. Emini E. An HIV-1 vaccine using a replication-defective adenoviral vector. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 210].
153. Suraratdecha C, Ainswort M, Tangcharoensathien V. The demand for an HIV/AIDS vaccine among high-risk groups: Does risk matter? XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 1301].
154. UNAIDS. AIDS vaccine research in Asia: Needs and opportunities. Report from a UNAIDS/WHO/NIID meeting, Tokyo, 1998. AIDS 1999;13:1-13.
155. Mahoney RT, Maynard JE. The introduction of new vaccines into developing countries. Vaccine 1999;17:646-52.
156. Bloom BR. The highest attainable standard: Ethical issues in AIDS vaccines. Science 1998;279:186-8.
157. Guenter D, Esparza J, Macklin R. Ethical considerations in international HIV vaccine trials: Summary of a consultative process conducted by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). J Med Ethics 2000;26:37-43.
158. UNAIDS. Ethical Considerations in HIV Preventive Vaccine Research (Document UNAIDS/00.07E). Genève: WHO, 2000.
159. Isbell MT, Widdus R, Williams L, Gold D. Minimizing regulatory delays in the approval and licensure of new HIV/AIDS vaccines. XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain, July 2002 [Abstract n.° 1302].
160. Boily MC, Masse BR, Desai K, Alary M, Anderson RM. Some important issues in the planning of phase III HIV vaccine efficacy trials. Vaccine 1999;17:989-1004.
161. Hilleman MR. The business of science and the science of business in the quest for an AIDS vaccine. Vaccine 1999;17:121-2.