Neurodegenerative disorders in humans: The role of glutathione in oxidative stress-mediated neuronal death

Brain Research Reviews

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 335-358

  Bains, Jaswinder S ^a   Shaw, Christopher A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Aging; ALS; Alzheimer; Glutathione; Neurotransmitter; Oxidative stress; Parkinson

Indexed keywords

2 OXO 4 THIAZOLIDINECARBOXYLIC ACID; ACETYLCYSTEINE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTIOXIDANT; ASCORBIC ACID; CYSTEINE; GLUTATHIONE; GLUTATHIONE DERIVATIVE; GLUTATHIONE ETHYL ESTER; GLUTATHIONE ISOPROPYL ESTER; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SCAVENGER;

AGING; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DEPLETION; HUMAN; MITOCHONDRION; NERVE CELL NECROSIS; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; CELL DEATH; GLUTATHIONE; HUMANS; NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES; OXIDATIVE STRESS;

EID: 0031418498     PISSN: 01650173     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0165-0173(97)00045-3     Document Type: Review

References (349)

1. Abraham E.C., Taylor J.F., Lang C.A. Influence of mouse age and erythrocyte age on glutathione metabolism. Biochem. J. 174:1978;819-825.
2. Adams J.D. Jr., Klaidman L.K., Odunze I.N., Shen H.C., Miller C.A. Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease: brain levels of glutathione, glutathione disulfide and vitamin E. Mol. Chem. Neuropathol. 14:1991;213-225.
3. Ahlskog J.E., Petersen R.C., Waring S.C., Esteban-Santillan C., Craig U.-K., Maraganore D.M., Lennon V.A., Kurland L.T. Guamanian neurodegenerative disease: are diabetes mellitus and altered humoral immunity clues to pathogenesis? Neurology. 48:1997;1356-1362.
4. Ahlskog J.E., Waring S.C., Kurland L.T., Petersen R.C., Moyer T.P., Harmsen W.S., Maraganore D.M., O'Brien P.C., Esteban-Santillan C., Bush V. Guamanian neurodegenerative disease: investigation of the calcium metabolism/heavy metal hypothesis. Neurology. 45:1995;1340-1344.
5. Albin R.L., Greenamyre J.T. Alternative excitotoxic hypotheses. Neurology. 42:1992;733-738.
6. Andrews J.M. Neurological disease on Guam: a review of past and present investigations. Bull. LA Neurol. Soc. 32:1967;30-42.
7. Auer R.N., Siesjo B.K. Biological differences between ischemia, hypoglycemia and epilepsy. Ann. Neurol. 24:1988;699-707.
8. Bailey-Wilson J.E., Plato C.C., Elston R.C., Garruto R.M. Potential role of an additive genetic component in the cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and parkinsonism-dementia in the western pacific. Am. J. Med. Genet. 45:1993;68-76.
9. Bains J.S., Sharma S.P., Garg S.K. Effect of propyl gallate feeding on glutathione content in aging Zaprionus paravittiger. Gerontology. 38:1992;192-195.
10. Bakhit C., Morgan M.E., Peat M.A., Gibb J.W. Long-term effects of methamphetamine on the synthesis and metabolism of 5-hydroxytryptamine in various regions of the rat brain. Neuropharmacology. 20:1981;1135-1140.
11. Balazs L., Leon M. Evidence of an oxidative challenge in the Alzheimer's brain. Neurochem. Res. 19:1994;1131-1137.
12. Ballard P.A., Tetrud J.W., Langston J.W. Permanent human parkinsonism due to 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP): seven cases. Neurology. 35:1985;949-956.
13. Bannai S. Transport of cysteine and cystine in mammalian cells. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 779:1984;289-306.
14. Beal M.F. Does impairment of energy metabolism result in excitotoxic neuronal death in neurodegenerative illnesses? Ann. Neurol. 31:1992;119-130.
15. Beal M.F. Mechanisms of excitotoxicity in neurologic diseases. FASEB J. 6:1992;3338-3344.
16. Beal M.F. Aging, energy, and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Ann. Neurol. 38:1995;357-366.
17. Beckman J.S., Carson M., Smith C.D., Koppenol W.H. ALS, SOD and peroxynitrite. Nature. 364:1993;584.
18. Behl C., Davis J., Cole G.M., Schubert D. Vitamin E protects nerve cells from amyloid β protein toxicity. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 186:1992;944-952.
19. Behl C., Davies J.B., Lesley R., Schubert D. Hydrogen peroxide mediates amyloid β protein toxicity. Cell. 77:1994;817-827.
20. G. Benzi (Ed.), Peroxidation, Energy Transduction and Mitochondria During Aging, John Libbey Eurotext, Paris, 1990.
21. Benzi G., Moretti A. Are reactive oxygen species involved in Alzheimer's disease? Neurobiol. Aging. 16:1995;661-674.
22. Benzi G., Moretti A. Age- and peroxidative stress-related modifications of the cerebral enzymatic activities linked to mitochondria and the glutathione system. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 19:1995;77-101.
23. G. Benzi, A. Moretti, Glutathione in brain aging and neurodegenerative disorders, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
24. Benzi G., Pastoris O., Marzatico F., Villa R.F. Age-related effect induced by oxidative stress on the cerebral glutathione system. Neurochem. Res. 14:1989;473-481.
25. Benzi G., Pastoris O., Marzatico F., Villa R.F. Influence of aging and drug treatment on the cerebral glutathione system. Neurobiol. Aging. 9:1988;371-375.
26. Birchall J.D., Chappell J.S. Aluminium, chemical physiology, and Alzheimer's disease. Lancet. II:1988;1008-1010.
27. Boesgaard S., Aldershvile J., Poulsen H.E., Loft S., Anderson M., Meister A. Nitrate tolerance in vivo is not associated with depletion of arterial or venous thiol levels. Circ. Res. 74:1994;115-120.
28. Bolanos J.P., Heales H.J.R., Land J.M., Clark J.B. Effect of peroxynitrite on the mitochondrial respiratory chain: differential susceptibility of neurons and astrocytes in primary cultures. J. Neurochem. 64:1995;1965-1972.
29. Bonfoco E., Krainc D., Ankarcona M., Nicotera P., Lipton S. Apoptosis and necrosis: two distinct events induced, respectively, by mild and intense insults with N-methyl-D-aspartate or nitric oxide/superoxide in cortical cell cultures. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 92:1995;7162-7166.
30. Bowling A.C., Schulz J.B., Brown R.H., Beal M.F. Superoxide dismutase 1 with mutations linked to familial and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J. Neurochem. 61:1993;2322-2325.
31. Braak H., Braak E. Neuropathological staging of Alzheimer-related changes. Acta Neuropathol. 82:1991;239-259.
32. Brody J.A., Stanhope J.M., Kurkland L.T. Patterns of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and parkinsonism-dementia on Guam. Contemp. Neurol. Ser. 12:1975;45-70.
33. Broquist H.P. Buthionine sulfoximine, an experimental tool to induce glutathione deficiency and ascorbate in their role as antioxidants. Nutr. Rev. 50:1992;110-111.
34. Brown R.H. Jr. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: recent insights from genetics and transgenic mice. Cell. 80:1995;687-692.
35. Buja L.M., Eigenbrodt L., Eigenbrost E.H. Apoptosis and necrosis: basic types and mechanisms of cell death. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 117:1993;1208-1214.
36. Busciglio J., Yankner B.A. Apoptosis and increased generation of reactive oxygen species in Down's syndrome neurons in vitro. Nature. 378:1995;776-779.
37. Butterfield D., Hensley K., Harris M., Mattson M., Carney J. β-amyloid peptide free radical fragments initiate synaptosomal lipoperoxidation in a sequence-specific fashion: implications to Alzheimer's disease. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 200:1994;710-715.
38. Calne D.B. The free radical hypothesis in idiopathic parkinsonism: evidence against it. Ann. Neurol. 32:1992;799-803.
39. Candy J.M., Klinowski J., Perry R.H., Perry E.K., Fairbairn A., Oakley A.E., Carpenter T.A., Atack J.R., Blessed G., Edwardson J.A. Aluminosilicates and senile plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet. I:1986;354-356.
40. I. Ceballos, F. Agid, A. Delacourte, A. Defossez, A. Nicole, P.M. Sinet, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease: neurodegenerative disorders due to brain antioxidant system deficiencies?, in: I. Emerit, L. Packer, C. Auclair (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Biology and Medicine: antioxidant in Therapy and Preventive Medicine, Plenum Press, New York, 1990, pp. 493-498.
41. Ceballos-Picot I., Merad-Boudia M., Nicole A., Thevenin M., Hellier G., Legrain S., Berr C. Peripheral antioxidant enzyme activities and selenium in elderly subjects and in dementia of Alzheimer's type - place of the extracellular glutathione peroxidase. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 20:1996;579-587.
42. Chance B., Sies H., Boveris A. Hydroperoxide metabolism in mammalian organs. Physiol. Rev. 59:1979;527-603.
43. Chandrasekaran K., Giordano T., Brady D.R., Stoll J., Martin L.J., Rapoport S.I. Impairment in mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase gene expression in Alzheimer's disease. Mol. Brain Res. 24:1994;336-340.
44. Chandrasekaran K., Stoll J., Brady D.R., Rapoport S.I. Localization of cytochrome oxidase (COX) activity and COX mRNA in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex of the monkey brain: correlation with specific neuronal pathway. Brain Res. 579:1992;333-336.
45. Chao C.C., Hu S., Peterson P.K. Glia, cytokines, and neurotoxicity. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. 9:1995;189-205.
46. Charriaut-Marlangue C., Aggoun-Zouaoui D., Represa A., Ben-Ari Y. Apoptotic features of selective neuronal death in ischemia, epilepsy and gp 120 toxicity. Trends Neurosci. 19:1996;109-114.
47. Chen K.M. Disappearance of ALS from Guam: implications for exogenous causes (Japanese). Rinsho Shinkeigaku-Clin. Neurol. 35:1995;1549-1553.
48. Chen T.S., Richie J.P. Jr., Lang C.A. The effect of aging on glutathione and cysteine levels in different regions of mouse brain. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 190:1989;399-402.
49. Chen T.S., Richie J.P. Jr., Lang C.A. Life span profiles of glutathione and acetaminophen detoxification. Drug Metab. Dis. 18:1990;882-887.
50. Chen H., Tappel A.L. Protection by vitamin E, selenium, trolox C, ascorbic acid palmitate, acetylcysteine, coenzyme Q, beta-carotene, canthaxanthin, and (+)-catechin against oxidation damage to liver slices measured by oxidized heme proteins. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 16:1994;437-444.
51. Chen X., Xia M.S., Gresham L.S., Molgaard C.A., Thomas R.G., Galasko D., Wiederholt W.C., Saitoh T. Apo E and CYP2D6 polymorphism with and without parkinsonism-dementia complex in the people of Chamorro, Guam. Neurology. 47:1996;779-784.
52. Choi D.W. Glutamate neurotoxicity and diseases of the nervous system. Neuron. 1:1988;623-634.
53. Choi D.W., Rothman S.M. The role of glutamate neurotoxicity in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death. Ann. Rev. Neurosci. 13:1990;171-182.
54. Choi D.W. Calcium: still center-stage in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death. Trends Neurosci. 18:1995;58-60.
55. Colton C.A., Gilbert D.L. Production of superoxide anions by a CNS macrophage, the microglia. FEBS Lett. 223:1987;284-288.
56. A. Comfort, The Biology of Senescence, 3rd edn., Elsevier Science, New York, 1979.
57. A.J.L. Cooper, Role of astrocytes in maintaining cerebral glutathione homeostasis and in protecting the brain against xenobiotics and oxidative stress, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
58. Coyle J.T., Puttfarcken P. Oxidative stress, glutamate, and neurodegenerative disorders. Science. 262:1993;689-695.
59. M. Cudkowitz, R.A. Smith, R. Brown, Free radical toxicity in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
60. M. Cuenod, K.Q. Do, Glutathione release and nitrosoglutathione presence in CNS implications for schizophrenia, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
61. de Belleroche J., Orrell R.W., Virgo L. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: recent advances in understanding disease mechanism. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 55:1996;747-757.
62. Deng H., Henatati A., Tainer J., Iqbal Z., Cayabyab A., Hung W.-Y., Getzoff E.D., Hu P., Herzfeldt B., Roos R.P., Warner C., Deng G., Soriano E., Smyth C., Parge H.E., Ahmed A., Roses A.D., Hallewell R.A., Pericak-Vance M.A., Siddique T. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and structural defects in Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase. Science. 261:1993;1047-1051.
63. Den Hartog Jager W.A., Bethlem J. The distribution of Lewy bodies in the central and autonomic nervous systems in idiopathic paralysis agitans. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 23:1980;283-290.
64. Deneke S.M., Fanburg E.L. Regulation of cellular glutathione. Am. J. Physiol. 257:1989;L163-L173. (Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 1).
65. Dexter D.T., Sian J., Rose S., Hindmarsh J.G., Mann V.M., Cooper J.M., Wells F.R., Daniel S.E., Lees A.J., Shapira A.H.V., Jenner P., Marsden C.D. Indices of oxidative stress and mitochondrial function in individuals with incidental lewy body disease. Ann. Neurol. 35:1994;38-44.
66. Di Monte D.A. Mitochondrial DNA and Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 41(2):1991;38-42.
67. D.A. Di Monte, P. Chan, M.S. Sandy, Glutathione in Parkinson's disease: a link between oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage? Ann. Neurol., (1992) S111-S115.
68. Dragunow M., Belharz E., Sirimane E., Lawlor P., Williams C., Bravo R., Gluckman P. Immediate-early gene protein expression in neurons undergoing delayed death but not necrosis, following hypoxia-ischemic injury to the young rat brain. Mol. Brain Res. 25:1994;19-33.
69. G. Dryhurst, Glutathione, cysteine and the neuromelanin pathway: potential roles in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease - a new hypothesis, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997.
70. Duffy P.E., Tennyson V.M. Phase and electron microscopic observations of Lewy bodies and melanin granules in the substantia nigra and locus ceruleus in Parkinson's disease. J. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol. 24:1965;398-414.
71. Duncan M.W. Role of the cycad neurotoxin βMAA in the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-parkinsonism dementia complex of the western pacific. Adv. Neurol. 56:1991;301-310.
72. Duncan M.W., Marini A.M., Watters R., Kopin I.J., Markey S.P. Zinc, a neurotoxin to cultured neurons, contaminates cycad flour prepared by traditional Guamanian methods. J. Neurosci. 12:1992;1523-1537.
73. Dykens J.A., Stern A., Trenker E. Mechanisms of kainate toxicity to cerebellar neurons in vitro is analogous to reperfusion tissue injury. J. Neurochem. 49:1987;1222-1228.
74. Dyrks T., Dyrks E., Hartman T., Masters C., Beyreuther K. Amyloidogenicity of beta A4 and βA4-bearing amyloid protein precursor fragments by metal-catalyzed oxidation. J. Biol. Chem. 267:1992;18210-18217.
75. Earnshaw W.C. Apoptosis: lessons from in vitro systems. Trends Cell Biol. 5:1995;217-220.
76. Ellis R.E., Yuan J., Horvitz H.R. Mechanisms and functions of cell death. Ann. Rev. Cell Biol. 7:1991;663-698.
77. Enayat Z.E., Orrell R.W., Claus A., Ludolph A., Powell P.N., Leigh P.N., de Bellorche J. Two novel mutations in the gene for copper zinc superoxide dismutase in UK families with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Hum. Mol. Gen. 4:1995;1239-1240.
78. Evans D.A., Funkenstein H.H., Albert M.S., Scherr P.A., Cook N.R., Chown M.J., Hebert L.E., Hennenkens C.H., Taylor J.O. Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease in a community population of older persons. JAMA. 262:1989;2551-2556.
79. Evans P.H. Free radicals in brain metabolism and pathology. Br. Med. Bull. 49:1993;577-587.
80. Evans P.H., Peterhans E., Burge T., Klinowski J. Aluminosilicate-induced free radical generation by murine brain glial cell in vitro: potential significance in the aetiopathogenesis of Alzheimer's dementia. Dementia. 3:1992;1-6.
81. Evans P.H., Yano E., Klinowski J., Peterhans E. Oxidative damage in Alzheimer's dementia, and the potential etiopathogenic role of aluminosilicates, microglia and micronutrient interactions. EXS. 62:1992;178-189.
82. Faber J.L. Biology of disease: membrane injury and calcium homeostasis in the pathogenesis of coagulative necrosis. Lab. Invest. 47:1982;114-123.
83. Fahn S., Cohen G. The oxidant stress hypothesis in Parkinson's disease: evidence supporting it. Ann. Neurol. 32:1992;804-812.
84. Feany M.B., Mattiace L.A., Dickson D.W. Neuropathologic overlap of supranuclear palsy, pick's disease and corticobasal degeneration. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 55:1996;53-67.
85. Figlewicz D.A., Garruto R.M., Krizus A., Yanagihara R., Rouleau G.A. The Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase gene in ALS and parkinsonism-dementia of Guam. Neuroreport. 5:1994;557-560.
86. L.S. Forno, Pathology of Parkinson's disease, in: C.D. Marsden, S. Fahn (Eds.), Movement Disorders, Neurology 2, Butterworth, London, 1981, pp. 21-40.
87. Forno L.S. Lewy bodies in Parkinson's disease. Adv. Neurol. 45:1987;35-43.
88. Forno L.S. Neuropathology of Parkinson's disease. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 55:1996;259-272.
89. Fraga C.G., Oteiza P.I., Golub M.S., Gershwin M.E., Keen C.L. Effect of aluminum on brain lipid peroxidation. Toxicol. Lett. 51:1990;213-219.
90. Frecker M.F., Fraser F.C., Anderman E., Pryse-Phillips W.E.M. Association between Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis? Can. J. Neurol. Sci. 17:1990;12-14.
91. Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutase: regularities and irregularities. Harvey Lect. 79:1985;51-75.
92. Fujita K., Yamaguchi M., Shibayama K., Ando M., Honda M., Nagata Y. Decreased cytochrome c oxidase activity but unchanged superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities in spinal cord of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J. Neurosci. Res. 45:1996;276-281.
93. Garruto R.M., Gajdusek D.C., Chen K.-M. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis among Chamorro migrants from Guam. Ann. Neurol. 8:1980;612-619.
94. Garruto R.M., Yanagihara R., Gajdusek D.C. Disappearance of high incidence amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and parkinsonism-dementia on Gaum. Neurology. 35:1985;193-198.
95. Gerlach M., Ben-Shachar D., Reiderer P., Youdim M.B.H. Altered brain metabolism of iron as a cause of neurodegenerative diseases? J. Neurochem. 63:1994;793-807.
96. Gibb W.R.G., Lees A.J. The relevance of Lewy body to the pathogenesis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 51:1988;745-752.
97. Gobe G.C. Apoptosis in brain and gut tissue of mice fed a seed preparation of the cycad Lepidozamia perffskyana. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 205:1994;327-333.
98. Goedert M. Tau protein and the neurofibrillary pathology of Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurol. Sci. 16:1993;460-465.
99. Goedert M., Strittmatter J., Roses A.D. Risky apolipoprotein in brain. Nature. 372:1994;45-46.
100. Goldman J.E., Yen S.-H. Cytoskeletal protein abnormalities in neurodegenerative diseases. Ann. Neurol. 19:1986;209-223.
101. Good P.F., Olanow C.W., Perl D.P. Neuromelanin containing neurons of the substantia nigra accumulate iron and aluminum in Parkinson's disease: a LAMMA study. Brain Res. 593:1992;343-346.
102. Good P.F., Perl D.P., Bierer L.M., Schmeidler J. Selective accumulation of aluminum and iron in the neurofibrillar tangles of Alzheimer's disease: a laser microprobe (LAMMA) study. Ann. Neurol. 31:1992;286-292.
103. Goodman Y., Mattson M.P. Secreted forms of β-amyloid precursor protein protects hippocampal neurons against amyloid β-peptide-induced oxidative injury. Exp. Neurol. 128:1994;1-12.
104. Gotz M.E., Dirr A., Gsell W., Burger R., Janetzky B., Freyberger A., Reichmann H., Rausch W.-D., Riederer P. Influence of N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6,-tetrahydropyridine, lipoic acid and L-deprenyl on the interplay between cellular redox systems. J. Neural. Transm. 43:1994;145-162. Suppl.
105. Gotz M.E., Freyberger A., Hauer E., Burger R., Sofic E., Gsell W., Hecker S., Jellinger K., Hebenstreit G., Frolich L., Beckman H., Riederer P. Susceptibility of brains from patients with Alzheimer's disease to oxygen-stimulated lipid peroxidation and differential scanning calorimetry. Dementia. 3:1992;213-222.
106. Graham D.C. Oxidative pathways for catecholamines in the genesis of neuromelanin and cytotoxic quinones. Mol. Pharmacol. 14:1978;633-648.
107. Gsell W., Conard R., Hickethier M., Sofic E., Fralich L., Wichart I., Jellinger K., Moll G., Ransmayer G., Beckman H., Riederer P. Decreased catalase activity but unchanged superoxide dismutase activity in brains of patients with dementia of Alzheimer type. J. Neurochem. 64:1995;1216-1223.
108. Guo N., McIntosh C., Shaw C.A. Glutathione: new candidate neuropeptide in the central nervous system. Neuroscience. 51:1992;835-842.
109. Gurney M.E., Pu H., Chiu A.Y., Dal Canto M.C., Polchow C.Y., Alexander D.D., Caliendo J., Hentati A., Kwon Y.W., Deng H.-X., Chen W., Zhai P., Sufit R.L., Siddique T. Motor neuron degeneration that express a human Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase mutation. Science. 264:1994;1772-1775.
110. Gutteridge J.M.C., Quinlan G.J., Clark I., Halliwell B. Aluminium salts accelerate peroxidation of membrane lipids stimulated by iron salts. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 835:1985;441-447.
111. Hagan J.J., Middlemiss D.N., Sharpe P.C., Poste G.H. Parkinson's disease: prospects for improved drug therapy. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 18:1997;156-163.
112. Hajimohammadreza I., Brammer M. Brain membrane fluidity and lipid peroxidation in Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci. Lett. 112:1990;333-337.
113. Halliwell B. Reactive oxygen species and central nervous system. J. Neurochem. 59:1992;1609-1623.
114. Halliwell B. Antioxidants in human health and disease. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 16:1996;33-50.
115. Halliwell B. Cellular stress and protection mechanisms. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 24:1996;1023-1027.
116. Halliwell B. Antioxidants and human disease: a general introduction. Nutr. Rev. 55:1997;S44-S52.
117. Halliwell B., Gutteridge J.M.C., Cross C.E. Free radicals, antioxidants, and human disease: where are we now? J. Lab. Clin. Med. 119:1992;598-620.
118. Harding J.J. Free radical and protein-bound glutathione in normal and cataractous human lenses. Biochem. J. 117:1970;957-960.
119. Harding J.J., Blakytny R., Ganea E. Glutathione in disease. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 24:1996;881-884.
120. Harman D. Aging: a theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry. J. Gerontol. 11:1956;298-300.
121. Hazelton G.A., Lang C.A. Glutathione contents of tissues in the aging mouse. Biochem. J. 188:1980;25-30.
122. Hazelton G.A., Lang C.A. Glutathione biosynthesis in the aging adult yellow-fever mosquito [(Aedes aegypti (Louisville)]. Biochem J. 210:1983;289-295.
123. Hazelton G.A., Lang C.A. Glutathione levels during the mosquito life span with emphasis on senescence. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 176:1984;249-256.
124. Heales S.J.R., Davies S.E.C., Bates T.E., Clark J.B. Depletion of brain glutathione is accompanied by impaired mitochondrial function and decreased N-acetyl aspartate concentration. Neurochem. Res. 20:1995;31-38.
125. Hensley K., Carney J.M., Mattson M.P., Aksenova M., Harris M., Wu J.F., Floyd R.A., Butterfield D.A. A model for beta-amyloid aggregation and neurotoxicity based on free radical generation by the peptide: relevance to Alzheimer disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91:1994;3270-3274.
126. Hirata H., Ladenheim B., Rothman R.B., Epstein C., Cadet J.L. Methamphetamine-induced serotonin neurotoxicity is mediated by superoxide radicals. Brain Res. 677:1995;345-347.
127. Hixson J.E. Apolipoprotein E polymorphisms affect atherosclerosis in young males. Arterioscler. Thromb. 11:1991;1237-1244.
128. O.P. Hjelle, E. Rinvik, D. Huster, W. Reichelt, O.P. Ottersen, Antibodies to glutathione: production, characterization and immunocytochemical application to the central nervous system, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
129. Hockenbery D.M., Oltvai Z.N., Yin X.-M., Millian C.L., Korsmeyer S.J. Bcl-2 functions in an antioxidant pathway to prevent apoptosis. Cell. 75:1993;241-251.
130. F. Hucho, Transmitter receptors-general principles and nomenclature. in: F. Hucho (Ed.), Neurotransmitter Receptors, Elsevier Science, New York, 1993, pp. 3-59.
131. Ince P.G., Shaw P.J., Candy J.M., Mantle D., Tandon L., Ehmann W.D., Markesbery W.R. Iron, selenium and glutathione peroxidase activity are elevated in sporadic motor neuron disease. Neurosci. Lett. 182:1994;87-90.
132. Jain A., Madsen D.C., Auld P.A.M., Frayer W.W., Schwartz M.K., Meister A., Martensson J. L-2-Oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylate, a cysteine precursor, stimulates growth and normalizes tissue glutathione concentrations in rats fed a sulfur amino acid-deficient diet. J. Nutr. 125:1995;851-856.
133. Jain A., Martensson J., Stole E., Auld P.A.M., Meister A. Glutathione deficiency leads to mitochondrial damage in brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 88:1991;1913-1917.
134. R. Janaky, V. Varga, Z.J. Jenei, P. Saransaari, S.S. Oja, Glutathione and glutathione derivatives: possible modulators of ionotropic glutamate receptors, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
135. Jeandel C., Nicolas M.B., Dubois F., Nabet-Belleville F., Penin F., Cuny G. Lipid peroxidation and free radical scavengers in Alzheimer's disease. Gerontology. 35:1989;275-282.
136. Jenner P. Altered mitochondrial function, iron metabolism and glutathione levels in Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol. Scan. 87(146):1993;6-13.
137. Jenner P., Olanow C.W. Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 47:1996;S161-S170. Suppl.
138. Jenner P., Dexter D.T., Sian J., Schapira A.H.V., Marsden C.D. Oxidative stress as a cause of nigral cell death in Parkinson's disease and incidental lewy body disease. Ann. Neurol. 32:1992;S82-S87.
139. Joachim C.L., Selkoe D.J. The seminal role of β-amyloid in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Alz. Disord. Ass. Dis. 6:1992;7-34.
140. Jones D.P., Brown L.A., Sternberg P. Variability in glutathione-dependent detoxification in vivo and its relevance to detoxification of chemical mixtures. Toxicology. 105:1995;267-274.
141. Jones D.P., Coates R.J., Flagg E.W., Eley J.W., Block G., Greenberg R.S., Gunter E.W., Jackson B. Glutathione in foods listed in the national cancer institute's health habits and history food frequency questionnaire. Nutr. Cancer. 17:1992;57-75.
142. Joseph J.A., Roth G.S. Cholinergic systems in aging: the role of oxidative stress. Clin. Neuropathol. 15:1992;508A-509A. Suppl.
143. Julius M., Lang C.A., Gleiberman L., Harburg E., Di Francesco W., Schork A. Glutathione and morbidity in a community-based sample of elderly. J. Epidemiol. 47:1994;1021-1026.
144. Kalra S. Lewy body disease and dementia. Arch. Intern. Med. 156:1996;487-493.
145. Kane D.J., Sarafin T.A., Anton R., Hahn H., Gralla E.B., Valentine J.S., Ord T., Bredesen D.E. Bcl-2 inhibition of neural death: decreased generation of reactive oxygen species. Science. 262:1993;1274-1277.
146. Kannan R., Kuhlenkamp J.F., Jeandidier E., Trinh H., Ookhtens M., Kaplowitz N. Evidence for carrier-mediated transport of glutathione across the blood-brain barrier in the rat. J. Clin. Invest. 85:1990;2009-2013.
147. R. Kannan, J.-R. Yi, B.V. Zlokovic, N. Kaplowitz, Carrier-mediated GSH transport at the blood brain barrier and molecular characterization of novel brain GSH transporters, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
148. H. Kappus, Biochemical mechanisms of chemical induced lipid peroxidation, in: C. Vigo-Pelfry (Ed.), Membrane Lipid Oxidation, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991.
149. Kass G.E., Duddy S.K., Orrenius S. Activation of hepatocyte protein kinase C by redox-cycling quinones. Biochem. J. 260:1989;499-507.
150. Katayama Y., Cheun M.K., Gorman L., Tamura T., Becker D.P. Increase in extracellular glutamate and associated massive ionic fluxes following concussive brain injury. Neurosci. Abstr. 14:1988;1154.
151. Keller J.N., Mark R.J., Bruce A.J., Blanc E., Rothstein J.D., Uchida K., Waeg G., Mattson M.P. 4-hydroxynonenal, an aldehyde product of membrane lipid peroxidation, impairs glutamate transport and mitochondrial function in synaptosomes. Neuroscience. 80:1997;685-696.
152. Keller J.N., Pang Z., Geddes J.W., Begley J.G., Germeyer A., Waeg G., Mattson M.P. Impairment of glucose and glutamate transport and induction of mitochondrial oxidative stress and dysfunction in synaptosomes by amyloid β-peptide: role of the lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxynonenal. J. Neurochem. 69:1997;273-284.
153. Ketterer B. Protective role of glutathione and glutathione transferases in mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. Mut. Res. 202:1988;343-361.
154. Kisby G.E., Ellison M., Spencer P.S. Content of the neurotoxin cycasin (methylazoxymethanol beta-D-glucoside) and βMAA (beta-N-methylamino-L-alanine) in cycad flour prepared by Guam Chamorros. Neurology. 42:1992;1336-1340.
155. Kish S.J., Bergeron C., Rajput A., Deck H.N., Hornykiewicz O. Brain cytochrome oxidase in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurochem. 59:1992;776-779.
156. Kish S.J., Shannak K., Rajput A., Dozic S., Mastrogiacomo F., Chang L.-J., Wilson J.M., DiStefano L.M., Nobrega J.N. Aging produces a specific pattern of striatal dopamine loss: implications for the etiology of idiopathic Parkinson's disease. J. Neurochem. 58:1992;642-648.
157. Koh J., Choi D. Zinc alters excitatory amino acid neurotoxicity on central neurons. J. Neurosci. 8:1988;2164-2171.
158. Kostic V., Gurney M.E., Deng H.-X., Siddique T., Epstein C.J., Przedborski S. Midbrain dopaminergic degeneration in a transgenic mouse model of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 41:1997;497-504.
159. Krieger C., Wagey R., Lanius R.A., Shaw C.A. Activation of PKC reverses apparent NMDA receptor reduction in ALS. Neuroreport. 4:1993;931-934.
160. +2 and protein kinase C. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 17:1996;114-120.
161. L.T. Kurland, K. Radhakrishnan, D.B. Williams, S.C. Waring, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-parkinsonism-dementia complex on Guam: epidemiologic and etiological perspectives, in: A. Williams (Ed.), Motor Neuron Disease, Chapman & Hall, London, 1994, pp. 109-130.
162. Lang C.A., Naryshkin S., Schneider D.L., Mills B.J., Lindeman R.D. Low blood glutathione levels in healthy aging adults. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 120:1992;720-725.
163. Lang C.A., Wu W., Chen T., Mills B.J. Blood glutathione: a biochemical index of life span enhancement in the diet restricted Lobund-Wistar rats. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 287:1989;241-246.
164. Langaniere S., Yu B.P. Effect of chronic food restriction in aging rats: II. Liver cytosolic antioxidants and related enzymes. Mech. Ageing Dev. 48:1989;221-230.
165. J.W. Langston, MPTP: the promise of a new neurotoxin, in: C.D. Marsden, S. Fahn (Eds.), Movement Disorders 2, Butterworth, London, 1987, pp. 73-90.
166. 35S] glutathione binding sites in spinal cords from patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurosci. Lett. 163:1993;89-92.
167. Lanius R.A., Paddon H.B., Mezei M., Wagey R., Krieger C., Pelech S.L., Shaw C.A. A role for amplified protein kinase C activity in the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J. Neurochem. 65:1995;927-930.
168. 35S] glutathione binding sites in mouse and human spinal cord. J. Neurochem. 63:1994;155-160.
169. Lassmann H., Bancher C., Breitschopf H., Weigel J., Bobinski M., Jellinger K., Wisniewski H.M. Cell death in Alzheimer's disease evaluated by DNA fragmentation in situ. Acta Neuropathol. 89:1995;35-41.
170. Lavine L., Steele J.C., Wolfe N., Calne D.B., O'Brien P.C., Williams D.B., Kurland L.T., Schoenberg B.S. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/parkinsonism-dementia complex in Southern Guam: is it disappearing? Adv. Neurol. 56:1991;271-285.
171. F.H. Lewy, Paralysis agitans: I. Pathologische anatomie, in: M. Lewandowsky (Ed.), Handbuch der Neurologie, Springer, New York, 1912, pp. 920-933.
172. Li Y., Maher P., Schubert D. A role for 12-lipoxygenase in nerve cell death caused by glutathione depletion. Neuron. 19:1997;453-463.
173. Lin F.-H., Lin R., Wisnieski H.M., Hwang Y.-W., Grundke-Iqbal F., Healy-Louie G., Iqbal K. Detection of point mutations in codon 331 of mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 in Alzheimer's brains. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 182:1992;238-246.
174. Lomaestro B.M., Malone M. Glutathione in health and disease: pharmacotherapeutic issues. Ann. Phamacother. 29:1995;1263-1273.
175. Loo D.T., Coplani A., Pike C.J., Whittemore E.R., Walencewicz A.J., Cotman C.W. Apoptosis is induced by β-amyloid in cultured central nervous system neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 99:1993;7951-7955.
176. Lorenzo A., Yankner B.A. β-amyloid neurotoxicity requires fibril formation and is inhibited by Congo red. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91:1994;12243-12247.
177. Louvel E., Hugon J., Doble A. Therapeutic advances in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 18:1997;196-203.
178. Lovell M.A., Ehmann W.D., Butler S.M., Markesbery W.R. Elevated thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances and antioxidant enzyme activity in the brain in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology. 45:1995;1594-1601.
179. Lucas D.R., Newhouse J.P. The toxic effect of sodium L-glutamate on the inner layers of the retina. AMA Arch. Ophthal. 58:1957;193-210.
180. Mahley R.W. Apolipoprotein E: cholesterol transport protein with expanding role in cell biology. Science. 240:1988;622-630.
181. Makar T.K., Cooper A.J.L., Tofel-Grehl B., Thaler H.T., Blass J.P. Carnitine, carnitine acetyltransferase, and glutathione in Alzheimer brain. Neurochem. Res. 20:1995;705-711.
182. Maker T.K., Nedergaard M., Preuss A., Gelbard A.S., Perumal A.S., Cooper A.J.L. Vitamin E, ascorbate, glutathione, glutathione disulfide and enzymes of glutathione metabolism in cultures of chick astrocytes and neurons: evidence that astrocytes play an important role in the antioxidative processes in the brain. J. Neurochem. 62:1994;45-53.
183. H. Mann, M.T. McCoy, J. Subramaniam, H.V. Remmen, J.L. Cadet, Overexpression of superoxide dismutase and catalase in immortalized neural cells: toxic effects of hydrogen peroxide, Brain Res. (1997), in press.
184. +2 homeostasis and cell death. J. Neurosci. 15:1995;6239-6249.
185. Mark R.J., Lovell M.A., Markesbery W.R., Uchida K., Mattson M.P. A role for 4-hydroxynonenal, an aldehyde product of lipid peroxidation, in disruption of ion homeostasis and neuronal death induced by amyloid β-peptide. J. Neurochem. 68:1997;255-264.
186. Mark R.J., Pang Z., Geddes J.W., Uchida K., Mattson M.P. Amyloid β-peptide impairs glucose transport in hippocampal and cortical neurons: involvement of membrane lipid peroxidation. J. Neurosci. 17:1997;1046-1054.
187. Markesberry W.R. Oxidative stress hypothesis in Alzheimer's disease. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 23:1997;134-147.
188. Marklund S.L. Expression of extracellular superoxide dismutase by human cell lines. Biochem. J. 266:1990;213-219.
189. Martensson J., Han H., Griffith O.W., Meister A. Glutathione ester delays the onset of scurvy in ascorbate-deficient guinea pigs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 90:1993;317-321.
190. Martensson J., Jain A., Stole E., Frayer W., Auld P.A. Inhibition of glutathione synthesis in the newborn rat: a model for endogenously produced oxidative stress. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 88:1991;9360-9364.
191. Martensson J., Meister A. Glutathione deficiency decreases tissue ascorbate levels in newborn rats: ascorbate spares glutathione and protects. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 88:1991;4656-4660.
192. C.N. Martyn, Epidemiology, in: A.C. Williams (Ed.), Motor Neuron Disease, Chapman & Hall, London, 1994, pp. 393-426.
193. Mattson M.P. Free radicals and disruption of neuronal ion homeostasis in AD: a role for amyloid β-peptide? Neurobiol. Aging. 16:1995;679-682.
194. +2 homeostasis in Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci. 16:1993;409-414.
195. Mattson M.P., Goodman Y. Different amyloidogenic peptides share a similar mechanism of neurotoxicity involving reactive oxygen species and calcium. Brain Res. 676:1995;219-224.
196. M.D. Mattson, B. Rychlik, M.G. Engle, Possible involvement of calcium and inositol phospholipid signaling pathways in neurofibrillary degeneration, in: K. Iqbal, D.R.C. McLachlan, B. Winblad, H.M. Wisnieski (Eds.), Alzheimer's Disease: Basic Mechanisms, Diagnosis and Therapeutic Strategies, Wiley, New York, 1990, pp. 191-198.
197. McEachern J.C., Shaw C.A. An alternative to LTP orthodoxy: a plasticity-pathology continuum model. Brain Res. Rev. 22:1996;51-92.
198. McGeer P.L., Schwab C., McGeer E.G., Haddock R.L., Steele J.C. Familial nature and continuing morbidity of the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-parkinsonism dementia complex of Guam. Neurology. 49:1997;400-409.
199. McLachlan D.R., Bergeron C., Smith J.E., Boomer D., Rifat S.L. Risk for neuropathologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease and residual aluminum in municipal drinking water employing weighted residential histories. Neurology. 46:1996;401-405.
200. Mecocci P., MacGarvey U., Kaufman A.E., Koontz D., Shoffner J.M., Wallace D.C., Beal M.F. Oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA shows marked age-dependent increases in human brain. Ann. Neurol. 34:1993;609-616.
201. Meiri H., Banin E., Roll M. Aluminum ingestion - is it related to dementia? Rev. Environ. Health. 9:1991;191-205.
202. Meister A. Glutathione metabolism and its selective modification. J. Biol. Chem. 263:1988;17205-17208.
203. A. Meister, On the biochemistry of glutathione, in: N. Taniguchi, T. Higashi, Y. Sakamoto, A. Meister (Eds.), Glutathione Centennial: Molecular Perspectives and Clinical Implications, Academic Press, San Diego, 1989, pp. 3-21.
204. Meister A. Glutathione-ascorbic acid antioxidant system in animals. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;9397-9400.
205. Meldrum B., Garthwaite J. Excitatory amino acid neurotoxicity and neurodegenerative disease. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 11:1990;379-386.
206. Minauf M., Jellinger K. Kombination von amyotrophischer lateralsklerose mit pickscher krankeit. Arch. Psychiat. Nervenkr. 212:1969;279-288.
207. Mithofer K., Sandy M.S., Smith M.T., Di Monte D. Mitochondrial poisons cause depletion of reduced glutathione in isolated hepatocytes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 295:1992;132-136.
208. Miyamoto M., Coyle J. Idebenone attenuates neuronal degeneration induced by intrastriatal injection of excitotoxins. Exp. Neurol. 108:1990;38-45.
209. Miyamoto M., Murphy T.H., Schnaar R.L., Coyle J.T. Antioxidants protect against glutamate-induced cytotoxicity in a neuronal cell line. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 250:1989;1132-1140.
210. Mitchell J.R., Jollow D.J., Potter W.Z., Gillette J.R., Brodie B.B. Acetaminophen-induced hepatic necrosis: IV. Protective role of glutathione. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 187:1973;211-217.
211. Montine K.S., Olson S.J., Amarnath V., Whetsell W.O. Jr., Graham D.G., Montine T.J. Immunohistochemical detection of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal adducts in Alzheimer's disease is associated with inheritance of apoE4. Am. J. Pathol. 150:1997;437-443.
212. Monyer H., Hartley D.M., Choi D.W. 21-Aminosteroids attenuate excitotoxic neuronal injury in cortical cell cultures. Neuron. 5:1990;121-126.
213. Multhaup G., Ruppert T., Schlicksupp A., Hesse L., Beher D., Masters C.L., Bayreuther K. Reactive oxygen species and Alzheimer's disease. Biochem. Pharmacol. 54:1997;533-539.
214. Munch G., Thome J., Foley P., Shinzel R., Riederer P. Advanced glycation end products in ageing and Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res. Rev. 23:1997;134-143.
215. Mutisya E.M., Bowling A.C., Beal M.F. Cortical cytochrome oxidase activity is reduced in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurochem. 63:1994;2179-2184.
216. L.S. Myers, Free radical damage to nucleic acids and their components: the direct absorption of energy, in: W.A. Pryor (Ed.), Free radicals in Biology, Vol. 4, Academic Press, New York, 1980, pp. 95-114.
217. Nagata S. Apoptosis by death factor. Cell. 88:1997;355-365.
218. Nicholson D.W., Ali A., Thormberry N.A., Vaillancourt J.P., Ding C.K., Gallant M., Gareau Y., Griffin P.R., Labelle M., Lazebnik Y.A., Munday N.A., Raju S.M., Smulson M.E., Yamin T.-T., Yu V.L., Miller D.K. Identification and inhibition of the ICE/CED-3 protease necessary for mammalian apoptosis. Nature. 376:1995;37-43.
219. Novelli A., Reilley J.A., Lysko P.G., Henneberry R.C. Glutamate becomes neurotoxic via the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor when intracellular energy levels are reduced. Brain Res. 451:1988;205-212.
220. Ogita K., Enomoto R., Nakahara F., Ishitsubo N., Yoneda Y. A possible role of glutathione as an endogenous agonist at the N-methyl-D-aspartate recognition domain in rat brain. J. Neurochem. 64:1995;1088-1096.
221. K. Ogita, M. Shuto, H. Maeda, T. Minami, Y. Yoneda, Possible modulation by glutathione of glutamatergic neurotransmission, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
222. Oh C.H., Brownson D.M., Mabry T.J. Screening for non-protein amino acids in seeds of the Guam cycad, Cycas circinalis, by an improved GC-MS method. Planta Med. 61:1995;66-70.
223. 2+-induced lipid peroxidation in phosphatidylcholine liposomes by aluminium ions at physiological pH. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1170:1993;182-188.
224. Okabe E., Sugihara M., Tanaka K., Sasaki H., Ito H. Calmodulin and free radicals interaction with steady-state calcium accumulation and passive calcium permeability of cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 250:1989;286-292.
225. Olanow C.W. Oxidation reactions in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 40(3):1990;32-37.
226. Olanow C.W. An introduction to the free radical hypothesis in Parkinson's disease. Ann. Neurol. 32:1992;S2-S9.
227. Olanow C.W. Attempts to obtain neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 49(1):1997;S26-S33.
228. Olanow C.W., Holgate R.C., Murtaugh R., Martinez C. MR images in Parkinson's disease and aging. Adv. Neurol. 36:1989;155-164.
229. J.W. Olney, Neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids, in: E.G. McGeer, J.W. Olney, P.L. McGeer (Eds.), Kainic Acid As a Tool in Neurobiology, Raven Press, New York, 1978, pp. 1-15.
230. Olney J.W., Zorumski C., Price M.T., Labruyere J. L-Cysteine, a bicarbonate-sensitive endogenous excitotoxin. Science. 248:1990;596-599.
231. Orrenius S., Burkitt M.J., Kass G.E.N., Dypbukt J.M., Nicotera P. Calcium ions and oxidative cell injury. Ann. Neurol. 32:1992;S33-S42.
232. Oteiza P.I. A mechanism for the stimulatory effect of aluminum on iron-induced lipid peroxidation. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 308:1994;374-379.
233. Parker W.D. Jr., Boyson S.J., Parks J.K. Abnormalities of the electron transport chain in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Ann. Neurol. 26:1989;719-723.
234. Parker W.D. Jr., Filley C.M., Parks J.K. Cytochrome oxidase deficiency in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology. 40:1990;1302-1303.
235. Parker W.D. Jr., Parks J.K., Filley C.M., Kleinschmidt-DeMasters B.K. Electron transport chain defects in Alzheimer's disease brain. Neurology. 44:1994;1090-1096.
236. Parkinson study group Cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid in the DATATOP study on Parkinson's disease. Arch. Neurol. 52:1995;237-245.
237. Parkinson study group Impact of deprenyl and tocopherol treatment on Parkinson's disease in DATATOP subjects not requiring levodopa. Ann. Neurol. 39:1996;29-36.
238. Parkinson study group Impact of deprenyl and tocopherol treatment on Parkinson's disease in DATATOP patients requiring levodopa. Ann. Neurol. 39:1996;37-45.
239. B.A. Pasqualotto, K. Curry, C.A. Shaw, Excitatory actions of GSH on neocortex, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
240. Pasqualotto B.A., Shaw C.A. Regulation of ionotropic receptors by protein phosphorylation. Biochem. Pharmacol. 51:1996;1417-1425.
241. Patel B.N., David S. A novel glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored form of ceruloplasmin is expressed by mammalian astrocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 272:1997;. (in press).
242. Pelech S.L. Kinase connections on the cellular intranet: signalling pathways. Curr. Biol. 6:1996;551-554.
243. Perrin R., Briancon S., Jeandel C., Artur Y., Minn A., Penin F., Siest G. Blood activity of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase in Alzheimer's disease: a case-control study. Gerontology. 36:1990;306-313.
244. Perry T.L., Godin D.V., Hansen S. Parkinson's disease: a disorder due to nigral glutathione deficiency. Neurosci. Lett. 33:1982;300-310.
245. Perry T.L., Hansen S., Jones K. Brain amino acids and glutathione in progressive supranuclear palsy. Neurology. 38:1988;943-946.
246. Perry T.L., Yong V.W. Idiopathic Parkinson's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy and glutathione metabolism in the substantia nigra of patients. Neurosci. Lett. 67:1986;269-274.
247. Perry T.L., Yong V.W., Bergeron C., Hansen S., Jones K. Amino acids, glutathione, and glutathione transferase activity in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Ann. Neurol. 21:1987;331-336.
248. Peuchen S., Bolanos J.P., Heales S.J.R., Almeida A., Duchen M.R., Clark J.B. Interrelationships between astrocyte function, oxidative stress and antioxidant status within the central nervous system. Prog. Neurobiol. 52:1997;261-281.
249. Pike C.J., Burdick D., Walencewicz A.J., Glabe C.G., Cotman C.W. Neurodegeneration induced by β-amyloid peptides in vitro: the role of peptide assembly state. J. Neurosci. 13:1993;1676-1687.
250. Poirier J., Davignon J., Bouthilier D., Kogan S., Bertrand P., Gauthier S. Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease. Lancet. 342:1993;697-699.
251. Portera-Cailliau C., Hedreen J., Price D., Koliatsos V. Evidence for apoptotic cell death in Huntington's disease and excitotoxic animal models. J. Neurosci. 15:1995;3775-3787.
252. Price D.L., Cork L.C., Struble R.G., Kitt C.A., Walker L.C., Powers R.E., Whitehouse P.J., Griffin J.W. Ciba Found. Symp. 126:1987;30-48.
253. Przedborski S., Donaldson D., Jakowec M., Kish S.J., Guttman M., Rosoklija G., Hays A.P. Brain superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 39:1996;158-165.
254. Przedborski S., Jackson-Lewis V., Kostic V., Carlson E., Epstein C.J., Cadet J.L. Superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities in copper/zinc-superoxide dismutase transgenic mice. J. Neurochem. 58:1992;1760-1767.
255. Przedborski S., Donaldson D.M., Murphy P.L., Hirsch O., Lange D., Naini A.B., McKenna-Yasek D., Brown R.H. Jr. Blood superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities in familial and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurodegeneration. 5:1996;57-64.
256. Puttfarcken P.S., Getz R.L., Coyle J.T. Kainic acid induced lipid peroxidation: protection with butylated hydroxytoluene and U 78517F in primary culture of cerebellar granule cells. Brain Res. 624:1993;223-232.
257. Rai N., Sharma S.P. Age-related changes in malondialdehyde content in Caryedon serratus Oliver (Coleoptera). Age. 9:1986;53-56.
258. Rathbun W.B., Murray D.L. Age-related cysteine uptake as rate-limiting in glutathione synthesis and glutathione half-life in the cultured human lens. Exp. Eye Res. 53:1991;205-212.
259. Ratan R.R., Murphy T.H., Baraban J.M. Oxidative stress induces apoptosis in embryonic cortical neurons. J. Neurochem. 62:1994;376-379.
260. Rechcigl M. Jr. Rates and kinetics of catalase synthesis and destruction in rats fed cycad and cycasin in vivo. Fed. Proc. 23:1964;1376-1377.
261. Rechcigl M. Jr., Laqueur G.L. Carcinogen-mediated alteration of the rates of enzyme synthesis and degradation. Enzym. Biol. Clin. 9:1968;276-286.
262. Reed D.J. Glutathione: toxicological implications. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 30:1990;603-631.
263. Richie J.P. Jr., Lang C.A. The maintenance of high glutathione levels in healthy, very old women. Gerontologist. 26:1986;80A.
264. Richie J.P. Jr., Mills B.J., Lang C.A. Correction of a glutathione deficiency in the aging mosquito increases its longevity. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 184:1987;113-117.
265. Richter C., Park J.-W., Ames B.N. Normal oxidative damage to mitochondrial and nuclear DNA is extensive. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 85:1988;6465-6467.
266. Riederer P., Sofic E., Rausch W.D., Schmidt B., Reynold G.P., Jellinger K., Youdim M.B.H. Transition metals: ferritin, glutathione, and ascorbic acid in parkinsonian brains. J. Neurochem. 52:1989;515-520.
267. Reiter R.J. Oxidative processes and antioxidative defense mechanisms in the aging brain. FASEB J. 9:1995;526-533.
268. Roher A.E., Ball M.J., Bhave S.V., Wakade A.R. β-amyloid from Alzheimer's disease brain inhibits sprouting and survival of sympathetic neurons. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 174:1991;572-579.
269. Rosen D.R., Siddique T., Patterson D., Figlewicz D.A., Sapp P., Hentati A., Donaldson D., Goto J., O'Regan J.P., Deng H.-X., Rahmani Z., Krizus A., McKenna-Yasek D., Cayabyab A., Gaston S.M., Berger R., Tanzi R.E., Halperin J.J., Herzfeldt B., Van den Bergh R., Hung W.-Y., Bird T., Deng G., Mulder D.W., Smyth C., Laing N.G., Soriano E., Pericak-Vance M.A., Haines J., Rouleau G.A., Gusella J.S., Horvitz H.R., Brown R.H. Jr. Mutations in Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase gene are associated with familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Nature. 362:1993;59-62.
270. Samuel W., Galasko D., Masliah E., Hansen L.A. Neocortical Lewy body variant of Alzheimer's disease. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 55:1996;44-52.
271. Sanchez-Ramos J.R., Averik E., Ames B.N. A marker of oxyradical-mediated DNA damage (8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine) is increased in nigro-striatum of Parkinson's disease brain. Neurodegeneration. 3:1994;197-204.
272. Sanan D.A., Weisgraber K.H., Russell S.J., Mahley R.W., Huang D., Saunders A.M., Schemechal D., Wisniesky T., Fragione B., Roses A.D., Strittmatter W.J. Apolipoprotein E associates with β-amyloid peptide of Alzheimer's disease to form novel monofibril: isoform apo E4 associates more efficiently than apo E3. J. Clin. Invest. 94:1994;860-869.
273. 2+ efflux. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1035:1990;300-305.
274. Sano M., Ernesto C., Thomas R.G., Klauber M.R., Schafer K., Grundman M., Woodbury P., Growdon J., Cotman C.W., Pfeiffer E., Schneider L.S., Thal L.J. A controlled trail of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 336:1997;1216-1222.
275. Saunders A.M., Strittmatter W.J., Schmechel D., St. George-Hyslop P.H., Pericak-Vance M.A., Joo S.H., Rosi B.L., Gusella J.F., Crapper-McLachlan D.R., Alberts M.J., Hulette C., Crain B., Goldgaber D., Roses A.D. Association of apolipoprotein E allele epsilon 4 with late-onset familial and sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Neurology. 43:1993;1467-1472.
276. Sayre L.M., Zelasko D.A., Harris P.L.R., Perry G., Salomon R.G., Smith M.A. 4-hydroxynonenal-derived advanced lipid peroxidation end products are increased in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurochem. 68:1997;2092-2097.
277. Schapira A.H.V., Cooper J.M., Dexter D., Clark J.B., Jenner P., Marsden C.D. Mitochondrial complex I deficiency in Parkinson's disease. J. Neurochem. 54:1990;823-827.
278. Schapira A.H.V., Mann V.M., Cooper J.M., Dexter D., Daniel S.E., Jenner P., Clark J.B., Marsden C.D. Anatomic and disease specificity of NADH CoQ I reductase (complex I) deficiency in Parkinson's disease. J. Neurochem. 55:1990;2142-2145.
279. Schmidt C.J. Neurotoxicity of the psychedelic amphetamine, methylenedioxymethamphetamine. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 240:1987;1-7.
280. Schoenberg B.S. Descriptive epidemiology of Parkinson's diseases: distribution and hypothesis formulation. Adv. Neurol. 45:1986;277-283.
281. Schoepp D.D., Conn P.J. Metabotropic glutamate receptors in brain function and pathology. Trend Pharmacol. Sci. 14:1993;13-20.
282. Schraufstatter I.U., Hyslop P.A., Hinshaw D.B., Spragg R.G., Sklar L.A., Cochrane C.G. Hydrogen peroxide-induced injury of cells and its prevention by inhibitors of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 832:1986;4908-4912.
283. Schubert D., Behl C., Lesley R., Black A., Dargusch R., Sagara Y., Kimura H. Amyloid peptides are toxic via a common oxidative mechanism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 92:1995;1989-1993.
284. Schweers O., Mandelkow E.-M., Biermat J., Mandelkow E. Oxidation of cysteine-322 in the repeat domain of microtubule-associated protein tau controls the in vitro assembly of paired helical filaments. Proc. Natl. Acad. USA. 92:1995;8463-8467.
285. Sechi G., Deledda M.G., Bua G., Satta W.M., Deiana G.A., Pes G.M., Rosati G. Reduced intravenous glutathione in the treatment of early Parkinson's disease. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 20:1996;1159-1170.
286. Sharma S.P., Bains J.S., Garg S.K. Peroxides in aging Zaprionus paravittiger on propyl gallate feeding. Age. 15:1992;45-46.
287. Shaw C.A., Pasqualotto B.A., Cury K. Glutathione-induced sodium currents in neocortex. Neuroreport. 7:1996;1149-1152.
288. Shaw I.C., Fitzmaurice P.S., Mitchell J.D., Lynch P.G. Studies on cellular free radical protection mechanisms in the anterior horn from patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurodegeneration. 4:1995;391-396.
289. Shaw P.J., Ince P.G., Falkous G., Mantle D. Oxidative damage to protein in sporadic motor neuron disease spinal cord. Ann. Neurol. 38:1995;691-695.
290. H. Sheinberg, The neurotoxicity of copper, in: S. Bondy, K. Prasad (Eds.), Metal Neurotoxicity, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1988, pp. 55-60.
291. Sian J., Dexter D.T., Lees A.J., Daniel S., Agid Y., Javoy-Agid F., Jenner P., Marsden C.D. Alterations in glutathione levels in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases affecting basal ganglia. Ann. Neurol. 36:1994;348-355.
292. J. Sian, M. Gerlach, P. Riederer, The role of altered glutathione status in the development of Parkinson's disease. in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
293. H. Sies (Ed.), Oxidative Stress: Oxidants and Antioxidants, Academic Press, New York, 1991.
294. Simonian N.A., Coyle J.T. Oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 36:1996;83-106.
295. Simonian N.A., Hyman B.T. Functional alterations in Alzheimer's disease: diminution of cytochrome oxidase in hippocampal formation. J. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol. 52:1993;580-585.
296. Slivka A., Spina M.B., Cohen G. Reduced and oxidized glutathione in human and monkey brain. Neurosci. Lett. 74:1987;112-118.
297. Smale G., Nichols N.R., Brady D.R., Finch C.E., Horton W.E. Jr. Evidence for apoptotic cell death in Alzheimer's disease. Exp. Neurol. 133:1995;225-230.
298. Smith D.W. Mutagenicity of cycasin aglycone (methylazoxymethanol), a naturally occurring carcinogen. Science. 152:1966;1273-1274.
299. Smith M.A., Rudinicka-Nawrot M., Richey P.L., Praprotnik D., Mulvihill P., Miller C.A., Sayre L.M., Perry G. Carbonyl-related posttranslational modification of neurofilament protein in the neurofibrillary pathology of Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurochem. 64:1995;2660-2666.
300. Sohal R.S., Donato H., Biehl E.R. Effect of age and metabolic rate on lipid peroxidation in the housefly. Musca domestica, Mech. Ageing Dev. 16:1981;159-167.
301. Sohal R.S., Farmer K.J., Allen R.G., Cohen N.R. Effect of age on oxygen consumption, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione, inorganic peroxide and chloroform-soluble antioxidants in the adult male housefly. Musca domestica, Mech. Ageing Dev. 24:1984;185-195.
302. R.S. Sohal, W.C. Orr, Is oxidative stress a causal factor in aging?, in: K. Esser, G.M. Martin (Eds.), Molecular Aspects of Aging, Wiley, New York, 1995, pp. 109-126.
303. Sofic E., Paulus W., Jellinger K., Riederer P., Youdim M.B.H. Selective increase of substantia nigra zona compacta of Parkinsonian brains. J. Neurochem. 56:1991;978-982.
304. Sohal R.S., Weindruch R. Oxidative stress, caloric restriction, and aging. Science. 273:1996;59-63.
305. Spatz M., Laqueur G.L. Evidence for transplacental passage of the natural carcinogen cycasin and its aglycone. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 127:1968;281-286.
306. Spencer P.S., Nunn P.B., Hugon J., Ludolph A.C., Ross S.M., Roy D.N., Robertson R.C. Guam amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-parkinsonism-dementia linked to a plant excitant neurotoxin. Science. 237:1987;517-522.
307. Spina M.B., Cohen G. Dopamine turnover and glutathione oxidation: implications for Parkinson's disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. USA. 86:1989;1398-1400.
308. Stemmer P., Klee C.B. Serine/threonine phosphatases in the nervous system. Curr. Opinion Neurobiol. 1:1991;53-64.
309. Strittmatter W.J., Weisgraber K.H., Huang D.Y., Dong L.-M., Salveson G.S., Pericak-Vance M., Schmechel D., Saunders A.M., Goldgaber D., Roses A.D. Binding of human apolipoprotein E to synthetic β peptide: isoform-specific effects and implications for late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. USA. 90:1993;8098-8102.
310. H.M. Swartz, K. Mader, Free radicals in aging: Theories, facts and artifacts, in: K. Esser, G.M. Martin (Eds.), Molecular Aspects of Aging, Wiley, New York, 1995, pp. 77-97.
311. Tariot P.N. Alzheimer disease: an overview. Alz. Dis. Assoc. Disord. 8:1994;S4-S11.
312. Talley A.K., Dewhurst S., Perry S.W., Dollard S.C., Gummuluru S., Fine S.M., New D., Epstein L.G., Gendelman H.E., Gelbard H.A. Tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced apoptosis in human neuronal cells: protection by antioxidant N-acetylcysteine and the genes Bcl-2 and crmA. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15:1995;2359-2366.
313. Toborek M., Hennig B. Fatty acid-mediated effects on the glutathione redox cycle in cultured endothelial cells. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 59:1994;60-65.
314. Toffa S., Kunikowska G.M., Zeng B.-Y., Jenner P., Marsden C.D. Glutathione depletion in rat brain does not cause nigrostriatal pathway degeneration. J. Neural Transm. 104:1997;67-75.
315. Troncoso J., Costello A., Watson A., Johnson G. In vitro polymerization of oxidized tau into filaments. Brain Res. 613:1993;313-316.
316. van Duijn C.M., de Knijff P., Cruts M., Wehnert A., Havekes L.M., Hofman A., Van Broeckhoven C. Apolipoprotein E4 allele in a population-based study of early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Nature Genet. 7:1994;74-77.
317. Varga V., Jenei Z., Janaky R., Saransaari P., Oja S. Glutathione is an endogenous ligand of rat brain N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and 2-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA) receptors. Neurochem. Res. 22:1997;1165-1171.
318. Volterra A., Trotti C., Tromba C., Floridi S., Racagni G. Glutamate uptake inhibition by oxygen free radicals in rat brain cortical astrocytes. J. Neurochem. 14:1994;2924-2932.
319. von Poppe W., Tennstedt A. Klinische und pathologisch-anatomische Untersuchungen uber Kombinations formen praseniler Hirnatrophien (Pick, Alzheimer) mit spinalen atrophisierenden Prozessen. Psychiatr. Neurol. 145:1963;322-344.
320. Wagey R., Krieger C., Shaw C.A. Abnormal phosphorylation activity in the pathogenesis of ALS. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 20:1994;1648.
321. R. Wagey, C. Krieger, C.A. Shaw, Abnormal dephosphorylation effect on NMDA receptor regulation in ALS spinal cord, Neurobiol. Dis., (1997), in press.
322. Ward J. Molecular mechanisms of radiation-induced damage to nucleic acids. Adv. Radiat. Biol. 5:1977;181.
323. Warner H.R. Superoxide dismutase, aging, and degenerative disease. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 17:1994;249-258.
324. Watkins J.C., Olverman H.J. Agonists and antagonists for excitatory amino acids. Trends Neurosci. 10:1987;265-272.
325. Wei Q., Yeung M., Jurma O.P., Anderson J.K. Genetic elevation of monoamine oxidase levels in dopaminergic PC12 cells results in increased free radical damage and sensitivity to MPTP. J. Neurosci. Res. 46:1996;666-673.
326. Weinstock M. The pharmacotherapy of Alzheimer's disease based on the cholinergic hypothesis: an update. Neurodegeneration. 4:1995;349-356.
327. Whetsell W.O. Jr. Current concepts of excitotoxicity. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 55:1996;1-13.
328. Whiting M.G. Toxicity of cycads. Econ. Botany. 17:1963;271-302.
329. Williams D.B., Windebank A.J. Motor neuron disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). Mayo Clin. Proc. 66:1991;54-82.
330. Willmore L.J., Triggs W.J. Iron-induced lipid peroxidation and brain injury responses. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 9:1991;175-180.
331. Wong P., Pardo C., Borchelt D., Lee M., Copeland N., Jenkins N.A., Sisodia S.S., Cleveland D.W., Price D.L. An adverse property of a familial ALS-linked SOD 1 mutation causes motor neuron disease. Neuron. 14:1995;1105-1116.
332. +-induced oxidative injury by deprenyl (selegiline), U-78517F, and DMSO. N. Trends Clin. Neuropharmacol. 8:1994;187-188.
333. + toxicity in nigral dopaminergic neurones. Neuroreport. 7:1996;921-923.
334. J.L. Yakel, Calcineurin regulation of synaptic function: from ion channels to transmitter release and gene transcription, Trends Pharmacol. Sci., (1997) 124-134.
335. Yamamoto M., Sakamoto N., Iwai A., Yatsugi S., Hidaka K., Noguchi K., Yuasa T. Protective actions of YM737, a new glutathione analog. against cerebral ischemia in rats. Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. 81:1993;221-232.
336. Yan S.-D., Chen X., Fu J., Chen M., Zhu H., Roher A., Slattery T., Zhao L., Nagashima M., Morser J., Mighell A., Nawroth P., Stern D., Schmidt A.N. RAGE and amyloid β peptide neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease. Nature. 382:1996;685-691.
337. Yan S.-D., Chen X., Schmidt A.-M., Brett J., Godman G., Zou Y.-S., Scott C.W., Caputo C., Frappier T., Smith M.A., Perry G., Yen S.-H., Stern D. Glycated tau protein in Alzheimer's disease: a mechanism for induction of oxidative stress. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91:1994;7787-7791.
338. S.-D. Yan, S.F. Yan, X. Chen, J. Fu, M. Chen, P. Kuppusamy, M. Smith, G. Perry, G.C. Godman, P. Nawroth, J.L. Zweier, D. Stern, Non-enzymatically glycated tau in Alzheimer's disease induces neuronal oxidant stress resulting in cytokine gene expression and release of amyloid β-peptide, Nature Med., (1995) 693-699.
339. Yanagihara R., Garruto R.M., Gajdusek D.C., Tomita A., Uchikawa T., Konagaya Y., Chen K.-M., Sobue I., Plato C.C., Gibbs C.J. Calcium and vitamin D metabolism in Guamanian Chamorros with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and parkinsonism-dementia. Ann. Neurol. 15:1984;42-48.
340. Yankner B.A. Mechanisms of neuronal degeneration in Alzheimer's disease. Neuron. 16:1996;921-932.
341. Yankner B.A., Dawes L.R., Fisher S., Villa-Komaroff L., Oster-Granite M.L., Neve R.L. Neurotoxicity of a fragment of the amyloid precursor associated with Alzheimer's disease. Science. 245:1989;417-420.
342. Yoshikawa M., Hirai S. Lipid peroxide formation in the brain of aging rats. J. Gerontol. 22:1967;162-165.
343. Youdim M.B.H., Riederer Understanding Parkinson's disease. Sci. Am. 276:1997;52-59.
344. Zaczek R.A., Battaglia G., Contrera J.F., Culp S., De Souza E.B. Methylphenidate and pemoline do not cause depletion of rat brain monoamine markers similar to that observed with methamphetamine. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 100:1989;227-233.
345. Zaleska M.M., Nagy K., Floyd R.A. Regional lipid peroxidation in rat brain in vitro: possible role of endogenous iron. Neurochem. Res. 10:1985;397-410.
346. K. Zaman, R. Ratan, Glutathione and the regulation of apoptosis in the nervous system, in: C.A. Shaw (Ed.), Glutathione in the Nervous System, Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC, 1997, in press.
347. Zatta P., Zanoni S., Favarato M. The identification of aluminum (III) in the core of mature plaques from Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Aging. 13(1):1992;S117.
348. Zeevalk G.D., Nicklas W.J. Mechanisms underlying initiation of excitotoxicity associated with metabolic inhibition. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 257:1990;870-878.
349. 2 generation. J. Neurochem. 67:1996;1595-1606.