Big Brains, Meat, Tuberculosis, and the Nicotinamide Switches: Co-Evolutionary Relationships with Modern Repercussions?

International Journal of Tryptophan Research

Volumn 6, Issue , 2013, Pages

  Williams, Adrian C ^a   Dunbar, Robin I M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

cancer; dementia; diarrhea; hypervitaminosis B3; Parkinson's; pellagra; serotonin

Indexed keywords

EID: 85129723002     PISSN: None     EISSN: 11786469     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4137/IJTR.S12838     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. Boesch C., Boesch H. Hunting behavior of wild chimpanzees in the Taï National Park. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1989; 78(4): 547–73.
2. Mitani J.C., Watts D.P. Demographic influences on the hunting behavior of chimpanzees. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1999; 109(4): 439–54.
3. Richards M.P., Trinkaus E. Isotopic evidence for the diets of European Neanderthals and early modern humans. PNAS USA. 2009; 38: 16034–9.
4. Carmody R.N., Wrangham R.W. The energetic significance of cooking. J Hum Evol. 2009; 57(4): 379–91.
5. Ungar P.S., Sponheimer M. The diets of early hominins. Science. 2011; 334(6053): 190–3.
6. Niven J.E., Laughlin S.B. Energy limitation as a selective pressure on the evolution of sensory systems. J Exp Biol. 2008; 211(Pt 11): 1792–804.
7. Hall C.N., Klein-Flügge M.C., Howarth C., Attwell D. Oxidative phosphorylation, not glycolysis, powers presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms underlying brain information processing. J Neurosci. 2012; 32(26): 8940–51.
8. Sun J., Feng X., Liang D., Duan Y., Lei H. Down-regulation of energy metabolism in Alzheimer's disease is a protective response of neurons to the microenvironment. J Alzheimers Dis. 2012; 28(2): 389–402.
9. Surmeier D.J. Neuroscience: to go or not to go. Nature. 2013; 494(7436): 178–9.
10. Bolam J.P., Pissadaki E.K. Living on the edge with too many mouths to feed: why dopamine neurons die. Mov Disord. 2012; 27(12): 1478–83.
11. Perlman R.L. Evolution and Medicine. Oxford University Press: London 2013.
12. Navarrete A., van Schaik C.P., Isler K. Energetics and the evolution of human brain size. Nature. 2011; 480(7375): 91–3.
13. Hines M. Human Evolution, Diet and Health. London, UK: Healthy Body Publishing; 2008.
14. Vigne J.D. The origins of animal domestication and husbandry: a major change in the history of humanity and the biosphere. C R Biol. 2011; 334(3): 171–81.
15. Rowley-Conwy P., Layton R. Foraging and farming as niche construction: stable and unstable adaptations. Philos Trans R Soc Lond, B, Biol Sci. 2011; 366(1566): 849–62.
16. McMichael A.J., Powles J.W., Butler C.D., Uauy R. Food, livestock production, energy, climate change, and health. Lancet. 2007; 370(9594): 1253–63.
17. Walker S.P., Wachs T.D., Grantham-McGregor S. et al. Inequality in early childhood: risk and protective factors for early child development. Lancet. 2011; 378(9799): 1325–38.
18. Smil V. Eating meat: evolution, patterns, and consequences. Popul Dev Rev. 2002; 28(4): 599–639.
19. Rohrmann S., Overvad K., Bueno-de-Mesquita H.B. et al. Meat consumption and mortality—results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. BMC Med. 2013; 11: 63.
20. Heys M., Jiang C., Schooling C.M. et al. Is childhood meat eating associated with better later adulthood cognition in a developing population? Eur J Epidemiol. 2010; 25(7): 507–16.
21. Liu D., Pitta M., Jiang H. et al. Nicotinamide forestalls pathology and cognitive decline in Alzheimer mice: evidence for improved neuronal bioenergetics and autophagy procession. Neurobiol Aging. 2013; 34(6): 1564–80.
22. Blatt G.J., Chen J.C., Rosene D.L., Volicer L., Galler J.R. Prenatal protein malnutrition effects on the serotonergic system in the hippocampal formation: an immunocytochemical, ligand binding, and neurochemical study. Brain Res Bull. 1994; 34(5): 507–18.
23. Roe D. A Plague of Corn: The Social History of Pellagra. London, UK: Cornell University Press; 1973.
24. Fernstrom J.D., Langham K.A., Marcelino L.M., Irvine Z.L., Fernstrom M.H., Kaye W.H. The ingestion of different dietary proteins by humans induces large changes in the plasma tryptophan ratio, a predictor of brain tryptophan uptake and serotonin synthesis. Clin Nutr. Epub Jan 23, 2013.
25. Orosco M., Rouch C., Beslot F., Feurte S., Regnault A., Dauge V. Alpha-lactalbumin-enriched diets enhance serotonin release and induce anxiolytic and rewarding effects in the rat. Behav Brain Res. 2004; 148(1-2): 1–10.
26. Crosby A.W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westpoint, CT: Greenwood; 1972.
27. Seal A.J., Creeke P.I., Dibari F. et al. Low and deficient niacin status and pellagra are endemic in postwar Angola. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007; 85(1): 218–24.
28. Harris S. Clinical Pellagra. New York, NY: Mosby; 1941.
29. Surjana D., Halliday G.M., Damian D.L. Nicotinamide enhances repair of ultraviolet radiation-induced DNA damage in human keratinocytes and ex vivo skin. Carcinogenesis. 2013; 34(5): 1144–9.
30. Nisbett R.E. Violence and US regional culture. Am Psychol. 1993; 48(4): 441–9.
31. Sydenstricker V.P. The history of pellagra, its recognition as a disorder of nutrition and its conquest. Am J Clin Nutr. 1958; 6(4): 409–14.
32. Stone T.W., Forrest C.M., Darlington L.G. Kynurenine pathway inhibition as a therapeutic strategy for neuroprotection. FEBS J. 2012; 279(8): 1386–97.
33. Lichtheim M. Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Late Period. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 2006.
34. Vassilopoulos A., Fritz K.S., Petersen D.R., Gius D. The human sirtuin family: evolutionary divergences and functions. Hum Genomics. 2011; 5(5): 485–96.
35. Massudi H., Grant R., Guillemin G.J., Braidy N. NAD+ metabolism and oxidative stress: the golden nucleotide on a crown of thorns. Redox Rep. 2012; 17(1): 28–46.
36. Jang C., Arany Z. Sweet enticements to move. Nature. 2013; 500: 409–11.
37. Son M.J., Son M.Y., Seol B. et al. Nicotinamide overcomes pluripotency deficits and reprogramming barriers. Stem Cells. 2013; 31(6): 1121–35.
38. Klempin F., Beis D., Mosienko V., Kempermann G., Bader M., Alenina N. Serotonin is required for exercise-induced adult hippocampal neurogenesis. J Neurosci. 2013; 33(19): 8270–5.
39. Whitaker-Azmitia P.M. Behavioral and cellular consequences of increasing serotonergic activity during brain development: a role in autism? Int J Dev Neurosci. 2005; 23(1): 75–83.
40. Turlejski K. Evolutionary ancient roles of serotonin: long-lasting regulation of activity and development. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars). 1996; 56(2): 619–36.
41. Celada P., Puig M.V., Artigas F. Serotonin modulation of cortical neurons and networks. Front Integr Neurosci. 2013; 7: 25.
42. Rubia K., Lee F., Cleare A.J. et al. Tryptophan depletion reduces right inferior prefrontal activation during response inhibition in fast, event-related fMRI. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2005; 179(4): 791–803.
43. Bürkle A., Virág L. Poly(ADP-ribose): PARadigms and PARadoxes. Mol Aspects Med. 2013.
44. Duan W. Sirtuins: from metabolic regulation to brain aging. Front Aging Neurosci. 2013; 5: 36.
45. Bai P., Canto C., Brunyánszki A. et al. PARP-2 regulates SIRT1 expression and whole-body energy expenditure. Cell Metab. 2011; 13(4): 450–60.
46. Imai S. Dissecting systemic control of metabolism and aging in the NAD World: the importance of SIRT1 and NAMPT-mediated NAD biosynthesis. FEBS Lett. 2011; 585(11): 1657–62.
47. Lane N., Martin W.F. The origin of membrane bioenergetics. Cell. 2012; 151(7): 1406–16.
48. Woods H.A., Wilson J.K. An information hypothesis for the evolution of homeostasis. Trends Ecol Evol (Amst). 2013; 28(5): 283–9.
49. Munn D.H., Zhou M., Attwood J.T. et al. Prevention of allogeneic fetal rejection by tryptophan catabolism. Science. 1998; 281(5380): 1191–3.
50. Braidy N., Guillemin G.J., Grant R. Effects of kynurenine pathway inhibition on NAD metabolism and cell viability in human primary astrocytes and neurons. Int J Tryptophan Res. 2011; 4: 29–37.
51. Massudi H., Grant R., Braidy N., Guest J., Farnsworth B., Guillemin G.J. Age-associated changes in oxidative stress and NAD+ metabolism in human tissue. PLoS ONE. 2012; 7(7): e42357.
52. Combes V., Guillemin G.J., Chan-Ling T., Hunt N.H., Grau G.E. The crossroads of neuroinflammation in infectious diseases: endothelial cells and astrocytes. Trends Parasitol. 2012; 28(8): 311–9.
53. Peter C., Waldmann H., Cobbold S.P. mTOR signalling and metabolic regulation of T cell differentiation. Curr Opin Immunol. 2010; 22(5): 655–61.
54. Orabona C., Grohmann U. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase and regulatory function: tryptophan starvation and beyond. Methods Mol Biol. 2011; 677: 269–80.
55. Siddiqi S.H., Hwangbo C.C., Silcox V., Good R.C., Snider D.E., Middlebrook G. Rapid radiometric methods to detect and differentiate Mycobacterium tuberculosis/M. bovis from other mycobacterial species. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984; 130(4): 634–40.
56. Gowthaman U., Eswarakumar V. Molecular mimicry: Good artists copy, great artists steal. Virulence. 2013; 4(6).
57. Baïz N., Annesi-Maesano I. Is the asthma epidemic still ascending? Clin Chest Med. 2012; 33(3): 419–29.
58. Linneberg A. The increase in allergy and extended challenges. Allergy. 2011; 66 Suppl 95: 1–3.
59. Harden J.L., Egilmez N.K. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase and dendritic cell tolerogenicity. Immunol Invest. 2012; 41(6-7): 738–64.
60. von Bubnoff D., Bieber T. The indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) pathway controls allergy. Allergy. 2012; 67(6): 718–25.
61. Ezzati M., Vander Hoorn S., Lawes C.M. et al. Rethinking the “diseases of affluence” paradigm: global patterns of nutritional risks in relation to economic development. PLoS Med. 2005; 2(5): e133.
62. Bach J.F. The effect of infections on susceptibility to autoimmune and allergic diseases. N Engl J Med. 2002; 347(12): 911–20.
63. Thompson J.N. Coevolution: the geographic mosaic of coevolutionary arms races. Curr Biol. 2005; 15(24): R992–4.
64. Bernhard H., Fischbacher U., Fehr E. Parochial altruism in humans. Nature. 2006; 442(7105): 912–5.
65. Bogan K.L., Brenner C. Nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, and nicotinamide riboside: a molecular evaluation of NAD+ precursor vitamins in human nutrition. Annu Rev Nutr. 2008; 28: 115–30.
66. Ingram C.J., Mulcare C.A., Itan Y., Thomas M.G., Swallow D.M. Lactose digestion and the evolutionary genetics of lactase persistence. Hum Genet. 2009; 124(6): 579–91.
67. Rabinowitz J.D., White E. Autophagy and metabolism. Science. 2010; 330(6009): 1344–8.
68. Young S.N. The effect of raising and lowering tryptophan levels on human mood and social behaviour. Philos Trans R Soc Lond, B, Biol Sci. 2013; 368(1615): 20110375.
69. Crockett M.J., Apergis-Schoute A., Herrmann B. et al. Serotonin modulates striatal responses to fairness and retaliation in humans. J Neurosci. 2013; 33(8): 3505–13.
70. Robles Alonso V., Guarner F. Linking the gut microbiota to human health. Br J Nutr. 2013; 109 Suppl 2: S21–6.
71. Singh Y., Ahmad J., Musarrat J., Ehtesham N.Z., Hasnain S.E. Emerging importance of holobionts in evolution and in probiotics. Gut Pathog. 2013; 5(1): 12.
72. Diamond J.M. Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York, NY: Norton & Company Incorporated; 1997.
73. Vilcinskas A., Stoecker K., Schmidtberg H., Röhrich C.R., Vogel H. Invasive harlequin ladybird carries biological weapons against native competitors. Science. 2013; 340(6134): 862–3.
74. Flint H.J. The impact of nutrition on the human microbiome. Nutr Rev. 2012; 70 Suppl 1: S10–3.
75. Cryan J.F., Dinan T.G. Mind-altering microorganisms: the impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2012; 13(10): 701–12.
76. Daniel T.M. The bioarchaeology of tuberculosis: a global review on a reemerging disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005; 73(3): 649–50.
77. Wilbur A.K., Farnbach A.W., Knudson K.J., Buikstra J.E. Diet, tuberculosis, and the paleopathological record. Curr Anthropol. 2008; 49(6): 963–77; discussion 977–91.
78. Hershberg R., Lipatov M., Small P.M. et al. High functional diversity in Mycobacterium tuberculosis driven by genetic drift and human demography. PLoS Biol. 2008; 6(12): e311.
79. Smith N.H., Hewinson R.G., Kremer K., Brosch R., Gordon S.V. Myths and misconceptions: the origin and evolution of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2009; 7(7): 537–44.
80. Holloway K.L., Henneberg R.J., de Barros Lopes M., Henneberg M. Evolution of human tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of paleopathological evidence. Homo. 2011; 62(6): 402–58.
81. Kubo D., Kono R.T., Kaifu Y. Brain size of Homo floresiensis and its evolutionary implications. Proc Biol Sci. 2013; 280(1760): 20130338.
82. Shultz S., Nelson E., Dunbar R.I. Hominin cognitive evolution: identifying patterns and processes in the fossil and archaeological record. Philos Trans R Soc Lond, B, Biol Sci. 2012; 367(1599): 2130–40.
83. Enard W., Fassbender A., Model F., Adorján P., Pääbo S., Olek A. Differences in DNA methylation patterns between humans and chimpanzees. Curr Biol. 2004; 14(4): R148–9.
84. Fisher S.E., Ridley M. Evolution. Culture, genes, and the human revolution. Science. 2013; 340(6135): 929–30.
85. Gabel H.W., Greenberg M.E. The Maturing Brain Methylome. Science. 2013; 341: 626–7.
86. Dormandy T. The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis. London, UK: Hambledon Press; 1999.
87. Daskin J.H., Alford R.A. Context-dependent symbioses and their potential roles in wildlife diseases. Proc Biol Sci. 2012; 279(1733): 1457–65.
88. Ley R.E. Nutrition: when guests turn hostile. Nature. 2013; 494(7438): 437–8.
89. Said H.M. Intestinal absorption of water-soluble vitamins in health and disease. Biochem J. 2011; 437(3): 357–72.
90. Turroni F., Ribbera A., Foroni E., van Sinderen D., Ventura M. Human gut microbiota and bifidobacteria: from composition to functionality. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 2008; 94(1): 35–50.
91. Cohen M.N. Health and the Rise of Civilization. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 1989.
92. Donoghue H.D. Insights gained from palaeomicrobiology into ancient and modern tuberculosis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011; 17(6): 821–9.
93. Dye C. Making wider use of the world's most widely used vaccine: Bacille Calmette-Guerin revaccination reconsidered. J R Soc Interface. 2013; 10(87): 20130365.
94. Shaler C.R., Horvath C.N., Jeyanathan M., Xing Z. Within the Enemy's Camp: contribution of the granuloma to the dissemination, persistence and transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Front Immunol. 2013; 4: 30.
95. Gordon S.V., Bottai D., Simeone R., Stinear T.P., Brosch R. Pathogenicity in the tubercle bacillus: molecular and evolutionary determinants. Bioessays. 2009; 31(4): 378–88.
96. Miller J.L., Velmurugan K., Cowan M.J., Briken V. The type I NADH dehydrogenase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis counters phagosomal NOX2 activity to inhibit TNF-alpha-mediated host cell apoptosis. PLoS Pathog. 2010; 6(4): e1000864.
97. Seiner D.R., Hegde S.S., Blanchard J.S. Kinetics and inhibition of nicotinamidase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Biochemistry. 2010; 49(44): 9613–9.
98. Boshoff H.I., Xu X., Tahlan K. et al. Biosynthesis and recycling of nicotinamide cofactors in mycobacterium tuberculosis. An essential role for NAD in nonreplicating bacilli. J Biol Chem. 2008; 283(28): 19329–41.
99. Leistikow R.L., Morton R.A., Bartek I.L., Frimpong I., Wagner K., Voskuil M.I. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis DosR regulon assists in metabolic homeostasis and enables rapid recovery from nonrespiring dormancy. J Bacteriol. 2010; 192(6): 1662–70.
100. Chorine V. Action of nicotinamide on bacilli of the species Mycobacterium. Rend Acad Sci. 1945; 220: 150–1.
101. Soares M.B., Silva C.V., Bastos T.M. et al. Anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity of nicotinamide. Acta Trop. 2012; 122(2): 224–9.
102. McDermott W. The story of INH. J Infect Dis. 1969; 119(6): 678–83.
103. Shibata K., Fukuwatari T., Sugimoto E. Effects of dietary pyrazinamide, an antituberculosis agent, on the metabolism of tryptophan to niacin and of tryptophan to serotonin in rats. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2001; 65(6): 1339–46.
104. Yiasemides E., Sivapirabu G., Halliday G.M., Park J., Damian D.L. Oral nicotinamide protects against ultraviolet radiation-induced immunosuppression in humans. Carcinogenesis. 2009; 30(1): 101–5.
105. Murray M.F. Insights into therapy: tryptophan oxidation and HIV infection. Sci Transl Med. 2010; 2(32): 32ps23.
106. Suzuki Y., Suda T., Asada K. et al. Serum indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity predicts prognosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2012; 19(3): 436–42.
107. Grohmann U., Volpi C., Fallarino F. et al. Reverse signaling through GITR ligand enables dexamethasone to activate IDO in allergy. Nat Med. 2007; 13(5): 579–86.
108. Gage T.B. Are modern environments really bad for us? Revisiting the demographic and epidemiologic transitions. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2005; Suppl 41: 96–117.
109. McKeown T. The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage, or Nemesis? London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust; 1976.
110. Perren R. The Meat Trade in Britain, 1840–1914. London, UK: Routledge Kegan Paul; 1978.
111. Charlton J., Murphy M. The Health of Adult Britain 1841–1994, volumes I, II. London, UK: Office of National Statistics; 1997.
112. Logan W.P.D. Mortality in England and Wales from 1848 to 1947. Popul Stud (Camb). 1950; 4(2): 132–78.
113. Duvoisin R.C., Schweitzer M.D. Paralysis agitans mortality in England and Wales, 1855–962. Br J Prev Soc Med. 1966; 20(1): 27–33.
114. Farr W. Annual Report of the Registrar General. London: HMSO; 1948.
115. Greenwood M. Some British Pioneers of Social Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1948.
116. Lynn R., Meisenberg G., Mikk J., Williams A. National IQs predict differences in scholoastic achievement in 67 countries. J Biosoc Sci. 2007; 39(06): 861–74.
117. Carter R., Mendis K.N. Evolutionary and historical aspects of the burden of malaria. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002; 15(4): 564–94.
118. Pope A.S., Gordon J.E. The impact of tuberculosis on human populations. Am J Med Sci. 1955; 230(3): 317–53.
119. Munro W.T., Leitch I. Diet and tuberculosis. Proc Nutr Soc. 1945; 3: 155–64.
120. Palmer C.E., Jablon S., Edwards P.Q. Tuberculosis morbidity of young men in relation to tuberculin sensitivity and body build. Am Rev Tuberc. 1957; 76(4): 517–39.
121. Price W.A. Nutrition and Physical Degeneration. A Comparison of Primitive and Modern Diets and Their Effects. 6th ed. Chicago, IL: McGraw-Hill; 2003.
122. Downes J. An experiment in the control of tuberculosis among Negroes. Milbank Mem Fund Q. 1950; 28(2): 127–59.
123. Scrimshaw N.S., Taylor C.E., Gordon J.E. Interactions of Nutrition and Infection. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1968.
124. Dubos R.J. Effect of metabolic factors on the susceptibility of albino mice to experimental tuberculosis. J Exp Med. 1955; 101(1): 59–84.
125. Comas I., Coscolla M., Luo T., Borrell S., Holt K.E., Kato-Maeda M. et al. Out-of-Africa migration and Neolithic coexpansion of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with modern humans. Nat Genet. Sep 1, 2013. doi: 10.1038/ng.2744. [Epub ahead of print].
126. Lehrman S. The Diabolical Genius of an Ancient Scourge. Scientific American. Jul 2013: 69–73.
127. Trindade MÂ, Miyamoto D., Benard G., Sakai-Valente N.Y., Vasconcelos Dde M., Naafs B. Leprosy and tuberculosis co-infection: clinical and immunological report of two cases and review of the literature. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2013; 88(2): 236–40.
128. Zeisel S.H. Diet-gene interactions underlie metabolic individuality and influence brain development: implications for clinical practice derived from studies on choline metabolism. Ann Nutr Metab. 2012; 60 Suppl 3: 19–25.
129. Lister R., Mukamel E.A., Nery J.R. et al. Global epigenomic reconfiguration during mammalian brain development. Science. 2013; 341(6146): 1237905. Doi: 10.1126/science.1237905.
130. Pontali E., Matteelli A., Migliori G.B. Drug-resistant tuberculosis. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2013; 19(3): 266–72.
131. Kumar J.S., Subramanian V.S., Kapadia R., Kashyap M.L., Said H.M. Mammalian colonocytes possess a carrier-mediated mechanism for uptake of vitamin B3 (niacin): studies utilizing human and mouse colonic preparations. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2013; 305(3): G207–13.
132. Grathwohl S.A., Steiner J.A., Britschgi M., Brundin P. Mind the gut: secretion of α-synuclein by enteric neurons. J Neurochem. 2013; 125(4): 487–90.
133. Ulanovskaya O.A., Zuhl A.M., Cravatt B.F. NNMT promotes epigenetic remodeling in cancer by creating a metabolic methylation sink. Nat Chem Biol. 2013; 9(5): 300–6.
134. Tan B., Young D.A., Lu Z.H. et al. Pharmacological inhibition of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), an enzyme essential for NAD+ biosynthesis, in human cancer cells: metabolic basis and potential clinical implications. J Biol Chem. 2013; 288(5): 3500–11.
135. Zitron I.M., Kamson D.O., Kiousis S., Juhász C., Mittal S. In vivo metabolism of tryptophan in meningiomas is mediated by indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1. Cancer Biol Ther. 2013; 14(4): 333–9.
136. Soga T. Cancer metabolism: key players in metabolic reprogramming. Cancer Sci. 2013; 104(3): 275–81.
137. Sartini D., Morganti S., Guidi E. et al. Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase in non-small cell lung Cell Lung Cancer: Promising Results for Targeted Anti-cancer: promising results for targeted anti-cancer therapy. Cell Biochem Biophys. Epub Mar 27, 2013.
138. Li D., Luo N., Ma Q. et al. Excessive nictonic acid increases methyl consumption and hydrogen peroxide generation in rats. Pharm Biol. 2013; 51(1): 8–12.
139. Stone R. Public enemy number one. Science. 2013; 340(6131): 422–5.