Eating meat: Evolution, patterns, and consequences;L'ingestion de viande: évolution, tendances et conséquences

Population and Development Review

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 599-639

  Smil, Vaclav ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIET; FOOD CONSUMPTION; FOOD PRODUCTION; LIVESTOCK FARMING;

EID: 0036999369     PISSN: 00987921     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1728-4457.2002.00599.x     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Abel, W. 1980. Agricultural Fluctuations in Europe. New York: St. Martin's Press.
2. Aiello, L. C. and P. Wheeler. 1995. "The expensive-tissue hypothesis." Current Anthropology 36: 199-221.
3. Alroy, J. 2001. "A multispecies overkill simulation of the end-Pleistocene megafauna." Science 292: 1893-1896.
4. Alvard, M. S. and L. Kuznar. 2001. "Deferred harvests: The transition from hunting to animal husbandry." American Anthropologist 103: 295-311.
5. American Heart Association. 1998. Very Low Fat Diets. Dallas: AHA. « http://216.185.112.5/ presenter.jhtml?identifier=1840».
6. Anger, S. R. and J. L. Brown. 1990. "Cholesterol and fat content of wild game," The Nutrition Letter 8: 11-12.
7. Appleby, M. C. et al. 1992. Poultry Production Systems. Wallingford: CAB International.
8. Belfiore, F. et al. (eds.). 1991. Obesity: Basic Concepts and Clinical Aspects. Basel: S. Karger.
9. Birmingham, C. L. et al. 1999. "The cost of obesity in Canada," Canadian Medical Association Journal 160: 483-488.
10. Bleken, M. A. and L. R. Bakken. 1997. "The nitrogen cost of food production: Norwegian society," Ambio 26: 134-142.
11. BLS (Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor). 2002. Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities. Washington, DC: US Department of Labor. « http://www.bls.gov/iif/ oshsum.htm»
12. Blumenschine, R. J. and J. A. Cavallo. 1992. "Scavenging and human evolution," Scientific American 267 (4): 90-95.
13. Bray, G. A. and D. S. Gray. 1988. "Obesity: Part I-pathogenesis," Western Journal of Medicine 149: 429-441.
14. Buck, J. L. 1930. Chinese Farm Economy. Nanking: University of Nanking.
15. Buck, J. L. 1937. Land Utilization in China. Nanking: University of Nanking.
16. Caballero, B. and B. Popkin (eds.). 2002. The Nutrition Transition: Diet and Disease in the Developing World. London: Elsevier Science.
17. Cassell, D. K. and D. H. Gleaves. 2000. The Encyclopedia of Obesity and Eating Disorders. New York: Facts on File.
18. CAST (Council for Agricultural Science and Technology). 1999. Animal Agriculture and Global Food Supply. Ames, IA: CAST.
19. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2002. Escherichia coli O 157:H7. Atlanta, GA: CDC. « http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/escherichiacolihtm»
20. CDIAC (Carbon Dioxide Information and Analysis Center). 2001. Current greenhouse gas concentrations. Oak Ridge, TN: CDIAC. « http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/currentg.html»
21. Chapple, C. 1993. Nonviolence to Animals. Earth and Self in Asian Traditions. Albany: State University of New York Press.
22. Charbonneau, R. 1988. "Fiesta for six: One guinea pig... and we'll all be full," IDRC Reports (July): 6-8.
23. Choudhury, M. et al. 1996. "Review of the use of swine manure in crop production," Waste Management χ Research 14: 581-595.
24. Church, D. C. (ed.). 1988. The Ruminant Animal: Digestive Physiology and Nutrition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
25. Clark, G., M. Huberman, and P. H. Lindert. 1995. "A British food puzzle, 1770-1850," Economic History Review 48: 215-237.
26. Cohen, M. N. 2000. "History, diet, and hunter-gatherers," in K. F. Kiple and K. C. Ornelas (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 63-69.
27. Cui, L. 1995. "Third national nutrition survey," Beijing Review 38(4): 31.
28. Cyprus Conservation Foundation. 2002. The Massacre of Migrant Birds in Cyprus. Limassol: Cyprus Conservation Foundation. « http://www.conservation.org.cy/birds.html»
29. Dawber, T. R. 1980. The Framingham Study. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
30. Derven, D. 1984. "Deerfield foodways," in P. Benes and J. Montague (eds.), Foodways in the Northeast. Boston: Boston University, pp. 47-63.
31. Dupin, H., S. Hercberg, and V. Lagrange. 1984. "Evolution of the French diet: Nutritional aspects," World Review of Nutritional and Dietetics 44: 57-84.
32. Eaton, S. B., S. B. Eaton, III, and M. J. Konner. 1997. "Paleolithic nutrition revisited: A twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implications," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51: 207-216.
33. Eden, F. M. 1797. The State of the Poor. London: B. and J. White.
34. European Union (EU). 1995. Agricultural Statistics, NUTS Level 1 Areas. « http://www.ub.es/ medame/nutstat3.html»
35. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2000. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2000. Rome: FAO. « http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/X8200/X8200E00.HTM»
36. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2002. FAOSTAT Agriculture Database. « http://apps.fao.org»
37. FDA (Food and Drug Administration). 2001. Escherichia coli O 157:H7. Washington, DC: FDA. « http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/∼mow/chap 15.html»
38. Ferber, D. 2002. "Livestock feed ban preserves drug's power," Science 295: 27-28.
39. Flandrin, J-L. 1999. "The early modern period," in J-L. Flandrin and M. Montanari (eds.), Food: A Culinary History from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Penguin Books, pp. 349-373.
40. Flegal, K. M. 1996. "Trends in body weight and overweight in the U.S. population," Nutrition Reviews 54: S97-S100.
41. Fogel, R. W. 1991. "The conquest of high mortality and hunger in Europe and America: Timing and mechanisms," in P. Higgonet et al. (eds.), Favorites of Fortune. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 33-71.
42. Foley, R. A. and P. C. Lee. 1991. "Ecology and energetics of encephalization in hominid evolution," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 334: 223-232.
43. Fraser, A. F. et al. 1990. Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare. London: Baillière Tindall.
44. Fraser, G. E. and D. J. Shavlik. 2001. "Ten years of life: Is it a matter of choice?" Archives of Internal Medicine 161: 1645-1652.
45. Frison, G. C. 1987. "Prehistoric hunting strategies," in M. H. Nitecki and D. V. Nitecki (eds.), The Evolution of Human Hunting. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 177-223.
46. Gade, D. W. 2000. "Horse," in K. F. Kiple and K. C. Ornelas (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 542-545.
47. Ge, K. et al. 1991. "Food consumption and nutritional status in China, Food Nutrition and Agriculture 1: 54-61.
48. Golovan, S. P. et al. 2001. "Pigs expressing salivary phytase produce low phosphorus manure," Nature Biotechnology 19: 741-745.
49. Goodland, R. 1997. "Environmental sustainability in agriculture: Diet matters," Ecological Economics 23: 189-200.
50. Goodrich, R. and W. R. Stricklin. 2000. Beef. Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University.
51. Goudsblom, J. 1992. Fire and Civilization. London: Allen Lane.
52. Holt, S. H. et al. 1995. "A satiety index of common foods," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49: 675-690.
53. Horn, G. 2001. Review of the Origin of BSE. London: Department of the Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs. « http://www.de-fra.gov.uk/animalh/bse/bseorigin.pdf»
54. Howell, F. C. 1966. "Observations on the earlier phases of the European lower Paleolithic," American Anthropologist 68: 88-201.
55. Hu, F. B. and W. C. Willett. 1998. The Relationship Between Consumption of Animal Products and the Risk of Chronic Diseases: A Critical Review. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Medical School.
56. International Vegetarian Union. 2002. Religion and vegetarianism. « http://www.ivu.org/ religion/»
57. Ishige, N. 2000. "Japan," in K. F. Kiple and K. C. Ornelas (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1175-1183.
58. Ishmael, W. 1998. "Fat of the land," The Cattle Magazine 1998(7): 3-5.
59. International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2001. Continental overview of elephant estimates. « http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/aed/products/continen/ contable.htm»
60. Jarrige, R. and C. Beranger. 1992. Beef Cattle Production. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
61. Johansson, I. et al. 1996. "The Norwegian diet during the last hundred years in relation to coronary heart disease," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50: 277-283.
62. Jongbloed, A. W. and C. H. Henkens. 1996. "Environmental concerns of using animal manure-the Dutch case," in E. T. Kornegay (ed.), Nutrient Management of Food Animals to Enhance and Protect Environment. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers, pp. 315-332.
63. Keeling, M. J. et al. 2001. "Dynamics of the 2001 UK foot and mouth epidemic: Stochastic dispersal in a heterogeneous landscape," Science 294: 813-817.
64. Keys, A. 1980. Seven Countries: A Multivariate Analysis of Death and Coronary Heart Disease. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
65. Keys, A. and M. Keys. 1975. How to Eat Well and Stay Well the Mediterranean Way. New York: Doubleday & Co.
66. Kiple, K. F. 2000. "The question of Paleolithic nutrition and modern diet," in K. F. Kiple and K. C. Ornelas (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1704-1709.
67. Kuczmarski, R. J. et al. 1994. "Increasing prevalence of overweight among US adults," Journal of the American Medical Association 272: 205-211.
68. Lakdawalla, D. and T. Philipson. 2002. The Growth of Obesity and Technological Change: A Theoretical and Empirical Examination. Washington, DC: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. w8946.
69. Larsen, C. S. 2000. "Dietary reconstruction and nutritional assessment of past peoples: The bioanthropological record," in K. F. Kiple and K. C. Ornelas (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 13-34.
70. Lavoisier, A. L. 1791. De la richesse territoriale du royaume de France. Textes et documents présentés par Jean-Claude Perrot. Paris: Editions du CTHS (1988).
71. Leach, M. 2002. Koala: Habitats, Life Cycles. Food Chains, Threats. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn.
72. Lipsitch, M., R. S. Singer, and B. L. Levin. 2002. Antibiotics in agriculture: When is it time to close the barn door? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99: 5752-5754.
73. Matson, P., K. A. Lohse, and S. J. Hall. 2002. "The globalization of nitrogen deposition: Consequences for terrestrial ecosystems," Ambio 31: 113-119.
74. Mench, J. A. and P. B. Siegel. 2000. Poultry. Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University.
75. Mench, J. A. and A. van Tienhoven. 1986. "Farm animal welfare," American Scientist 74: 598-603.
76. Miller, E. R. et al. (eds.). 1991. Swine Nutrition. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.
77. Ministry of Health and Welfare. 1995. National Nutrition Survey. Tokyo: MHW.
78. Minnesota Attorney General's Office. 2001. Fast Food Facts. St Paul, MN: Attorney General's Office. « http://www.ag.state.mn.us/consumer/health/fff.asp»
79. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). 1980-2001. China Statistical Yearbook. Beijing: China Statistics Press.
80. National Cattlemen's Beef Association (NCBA). 2000. 1998 Final Review. Engelwood, CO: NCBA. « http://www.beef.org/library/economic/index.htm»
81. Nestle, M. 1995. "Mediterranean diets: Historical and research overview," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61 (Supplement): 1313S-1320S.
82. Nicholson, C. F. et al. 2001. "Environmental impacts of livestock in the developing world," Environment 43: 7-17.
83. Njiforti, H. L. 1996. "Preferences and present demand for bushmeat in north Cameroon: Some implications for wildlife conservations," Environmental Conservation 23: 149-155.
84. NRC (National Research Council). 1987. Predicting Feed Intake of Food-Producing Animals. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
85. NRC (National Research Council). 1988. Nutrient Requirements of Swine. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
86. NRC (National Research Council). 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
87. NRC (National Research Council). 1996. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
88. Onodera, R. et al. (eds.). 1997. Rumen Microbes and Digestive Physiology in Ruminants. Basel: Karger.
89. Ørskov, E. R. 1990. Energy Nutrition in Ruminants. New York: Elsevier.
90. Ørskov, E. R. 1999. Letter to the editor. Ecological Economics 29: 3.
91. OTA (Office of Technology Assessment). 1992. A New Technological Era for American Agriculture. Washington, DC: OTA.
92. Parsons, J. J. 1988. "The scourge of cows," Whole Earth Review (Spring): 1988: 40-47.
93. Perren, R. 1985. "The retail and wholesale meat trade 1880-1939," in D. J. Oddy and D. S. Miller (eds.), Diet and Health in Modern Britain. London: Croom Helm, pp. 46-65.
94. Pighealth.com. 2002. Foot and mouth disease news. « http://www.pighealth.com/diseases/ FMD/news.htm»
95. Pimentel, D. 2001. Ecological Integrity: Integrating Environment, Conservation and Health. Washington, DC: Island Press.
96. Pizzaware. 2001. Pizza Industry Facts. « http://pizzaware.com»
97. Poleman, T. T. and L. T. Thomas. 1995. "Income and dietary change," Food Policy 20: 149-159.
98. Pond, W. G. et al. 1991. Pork Production Systems. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
99. Popkin, B. M. 1993. "Nutritional patterns and transitions," Population and Development Review 19: 138-157.
100. Popkin, B. M. et al. 1993. "The nutrition transition in China: A cross-sectional analysis," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47: 333-346.
101. Popkin, B. M. and C. M. Doak. 1998. "The obesity epidemic is a worldwide phenomenon," Nutrition Reviews 56: 106-114.
102. Rabalais, N. N. 2002. "Nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems," Ambio 31: 102-112.
103. Revel, J. 1979. "Capital city's privileges: Food supply in early-modern Rome," in R. Foster and O. Ranum (eds.), Food and Drink in History. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 37-49.
104. Reynnells, R. D. and B. R. Eastwood (eds.). 1997. Animal Welfare Issues Compendium. Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University.
105. Rinehart, K. E. 1996. "Environmental challenges as related to animal agriculture-poultry," in E. T. Kornegay (ed.), Nutrient Management of Food Animals to Enhance and Protect the Environment. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers, pp. 21-28.
106. Schlosser, E. 2002. "How to make the country's most dangerous job safer," The Atlantic Monthly 289(1): 34-35.
107. Sims, J. T. and D. C. Wolf. 1994. "Poultry waste management: Agricultural and environmental issues," Advances in Agronomy 52: 1-63.
108. Sinclair, U. 1906. The Jungle. New York: Doubleday.
109. Smil, V. 1994. Energy in World History. Boulder, CO: Westview.
110. Smil, V. 2000. Feeding the World: A Challenge for the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
111. Smil, V. 2001. Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
112. Smil, V. 2002a. The Earth's Biosphere: Evolution, Dynamics, and Change. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
113. Smil, V. 2002b. "Worldwide transformation of diets, burdens of meat production and oppurtunities for novel food proteins," Enzyme and Microbial Technology 30: 305-311.
114. Smil, V. 2002c. "Nitrogen and food production: Proteins for human diets," Ambio 31: 126-131.
115. Snacken, R. et al. 1999. "The next influenza pandemic: Lessons from Hong Kong, 1997," Emerging Infectious Diseases 5: 195-203. « http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vo15no2/ snacken.htm»
116. So, J. K. 1980. "Human biological adaptation to Arctic and subarctic zones," Annual Review of Anthropology 9: 63-82.
117. Southgate, D. A. T. 1991. "Nature and variability of human food consumption," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 334: 281-288.
118. Stahler, C. 1994. "How many vegetarians are there?" Vegetarian Journal (July/August). « http:/ /www.vrg.org/nutshell/poll.htm»
119. Stanford, C. B. 1996. "The hunting ecology of wild chimpanzees: Implications for the evolutionary ecology of Pliocene hominids," American Anthropologist 98: 96-113.
120. Stanford, C. B. 1998. Chimpanzee and Red Colobus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
121. Stanford, C. B. 1999. The Hunting Apes: Meat Eating and the Origins of Human Behavior. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
122. Stanford, C. and H. T. Bunn (eds.). 2001. Meat-Eating and Human Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
123. Statistics Bureau. 2002. Japan Statistical Yearbook. Tokyo: Statistics Bureau.
124. Teuteberg, J. J. and J-L. Flandrin. 1999. "The transformation of the European diet," in J-L. Flandrin and M. Montanari (eds.), Food: A Culinary History from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Penguin Books, pp. 442-456.
125. Thompson, C. 2001. "In search of a CJD cure," Nature 409: 660-661.
126. Toutain, J-C. 1971. "La consommation alimentaire en France de 1789 à 1964," Economies et Sociétés A (11). Geneva: Cahier de l'ISEA.
127. Trichopoulou, A. et al. 1995. "Diet and survival of elderly Greeks: A link to the past," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61 (Supplement): 1346S-1350S.
128. UCS (Union of Concerned Scientists). 2001. Hogging It: Estimates of Antimicrobial Abuse in Livestock. Boston, MA: UCS. « http://www.ucsusa.org/food/hogging∃ec.html»
129. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2002. Human Development Report 2001. New York: UNDP. « http://www.undp.org/hdr2001/ »
130. USDA (US Department of Agriculture). 1999. USDA Nutrient Base for Standard Reference, Release 13. Washington, DC: USDA.
131. USDA (US Department of Agriculture). 2001a. Feed Situation and Outlook. Washington, DC: USDA.
132. USDA (US Department of Agriculture). 2001b. Agricultural Chemical Usage: 2000 Field Crop Survey. Washington, DC: USDA.
133. USDA (US Department of Agriculture). 2002a. Agricultural Statistics. Washington, DC: USDA. « http://www.usda.gov/pubs/ agstats.htm»
134. USDA (US Department of Agriculture). 2002b. Food Consumption (Per Capita) Data System. « http://www.ers.usda.gov/ data/foodconsumption/»
135. Watt, B. K. and A. L. Merrill. 1963. Handbook of the Nutritional Contents of Foods. Washington, DC: USDA.
136. Whiten, A. and E. M. Widdowson (eds.). 1991. Foraging Strategies and Natural Diet of Monkeys, Apes and Humans. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
137. Whiten, A. et al. 1999. "Cultures in chimpanzees," Nature 399: 682-685.
138. Whittemore, C. T. 1993. The Science and Practice of Pork Production. Essex: Longmann.
139. Wilson, L. L., C. L. Stull, and R. G. Warner. 2000. Special-fed Veal. Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University.
140. Wing, E. S. 2000. "Animals used for food in the past: As seen by their remains excavated from archeological sites," in K. F. Kiple and K. C. Ornelas (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 51-58.
141. Wrangham, R. W. et al. 1999. "The raw and the stolen," Current Anthropology 40: 567-594.
142. Wulf, D. M. 1999. "Did the locker plant steal some of my meat?" Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University.
143. Zizza, C. 1997. "The nutrient content of the Italian food supply 1961-1992," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51: