Bats and coronaviruses

Viruses

Volumn 11, Issue 1, 2019, Pages

  Banerjee, Arinjay ^a   Kulcsar, Kirsten ^b   Misra, Vikram ^c   Frieman, Matthew ^b   Mossman, Karen ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN   (Canada)

Author keywords

Bats; Coronaviruses; Immune response; In vitro; In vivo

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; BAT; CELL CULTURE; CORONAVIRIDAE; CORONAVIRINAE; DISEASE MODEL; DISEASE SEVERITY; EPIDEMIC; HOST; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IN VIVO STUDY; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; VIRUS STRAIN; ANIMAL; ASYMPTOMATIC DISEASE; CORONAVIRUS INFECTION; DISEASE CARRIER; MOLECULAR EVOLUTION; PATHOGENICITY; PHYLOGENY; PHYSIOLOGY; PIG; SARS CORONAVIRUS; SEVERE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME; VETERINARY MEDICINE; VIROLOGY; VIRUS GENOME;

ANIMALS; ASYMPTOMATIC DISEASES; CHIROPTERA; CORONAVIRUS; CORONAVIRUS INFECTIONS; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; DISEASE RESERVOIRS; EVOLUTION, MOLECULAR; GENOME, VIRAL; HUMANS; PHYLOGENY; SARS VIRUS; SEVERE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME; SWINE;

EID: 85059915893     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19994915     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/v11010041     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. Moratelli, R.; Calisher, C.H. Bats and zoonotic viruses: Can we confidently link bats with emerging deadly viruses? Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 2015, 110, 1–22. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Teeling, E.C.; Springer, M.S.; Madsen, O.; Bates, P.; O’Brien, S.J.; Murphy, W.J. A molecular phylogeny for bats illuminates biogeography and the fossil record. Science 2005, 307, 580–584. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Teeling, E.C.; Jones, G.; Rossiter, S.J. Phylogeny, Genes, and Hearing: Implications for the Evolution of Echolocation in Bats. Bat Bioacoustics 2016, 54, 25–54. [CrossRef]
4. Simmons, N.B.; Seymour, K.L.; Habersetzer, J.; Gunnell, G.F. Primitive Early Eocene bat from Wyoming and the evolution of flight and echolocation. Nature 2008, 451, 818–821. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. O’Leary, M.A.; Bloch, J.I.; Flynn, J.J.; Gaudin, T.J.; Giallombardo, A.; Giannini, N.P.; Goldberg, S.L.; Kraatz, B.P.; Luo, Z.X.; Meng, J.; et al. The placental mammal ancestor and the post-K-Pg radiation of placentals. Science 2013, 339, 662–667. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Lei, M.; Dong, D. Phylogenomic analyses of bat subordinal relationships based on transcriptome data. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 27726. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Fisher, C.R.; Streicker, D.G.; Schnell, M.J. The spread and evolution of rabies virus: Conquering new frontiers. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2018, 16, 241–255. [CrossRef]
8. Calisher, C.H.; Childs, J.E.; Field, H.E.; Holmes, K.V.; Schountz, T. Bats: Important reservoir hosts of emerging viruses. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2006, 19, 531–545. [CrossRef]
9. Zhou, P.; Fan, H.; Lan, T.; Yang, X.L.; Shi, W.F.; Zhang, W.; Zhu, Y.; Zhang, Y.W.; Xie, Q.M.; Mani, S.; et al. Fatal swine acute diarrhoea syndrome caused by an HKU2-related coronavirus of bat origin. Nature 2018, 556, 255–258. [CrossRef]
10. Woo, P.C.; Huang, Y.; Lau, S.K.; Yuen, K.Y. Coronavirus genomics and bioinformatics analysis. Viruses 2010, 2, 1804–1820. [CrossRef]
11. Coleman, C.M.; Frieman, M.B. Coronaviruses: Important emerging human pathogens. J. Virol. 2014, 88, 5209–5212. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Liu, D.X.; Fung, T.S.; Chong, K.K.; Shukla, A.; Hilgenfeld, R. Accessory proteins of SARS-CoV and other coronaviruses. Antivir. Res. 2014, 109, 97–109. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Narayanan, K.; Huang, C.; Makino, S. SARS coronavirus accessory proteins. Virus Res. 2008, 133, 113–121. [CrossRef]
14. Yang, Y.; Zhang, L.; Geng, H.; Deng, Y.; Huang, B.; Guo, Y.; Zhao, Z.; Tan, W. The structural and accessory proteins M, ORF 4a, ORF 4b, and ORF 5 of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) are potent interferon antagonists. Protein Cell 2013, 4, 951–961. [CrossRef]
15. CDC. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/sars/about/fs-sars.html (accessed on 20 December 2018).
16. WHO. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus. Available online: http://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/(accessed on 10 November 2018).
17. Lim, Y.X.; Ng, Y.L.; Tam, J.P.; Liu, D.X. Human Coronaviruses: A Review of Virus-Host Interactions. Diseases 2016, 4. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. Schulz, L.L.; Tonsor, G.T. Assessment of the economic impacts of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus in the United States. J. Anim. Sci. 2015, 93, 5111–5118. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Colvero, L.P.; Villarreal, L.Y.B.; Torres, C.A.; Brandao, P.E. Assessing the economic burden of avian infectious bronchitis on poultry farms in Brazil. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l’OIE 2015, 34, 993–999. [CrossRef]
20. Chen, L.; Liu, B.; Yang, J.; Jin, Q. DBatVir: The database of bat-associated viruses. Database 2014, 2014, bau021. [CrossRef]
21. Tang, X.C.; Zhang, J.X.; Zhang, S.Y.; Wang, P.; Fan, X.H.; Li, L.F.; Li, G.; Dong, B.Q.; Liu, W.; Cheung, C.L.; et al. Prevalence and genetic diversity of coronaviruses in bats from China. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 7481–7490. [CrossRef]
22. Guan, Y.; Zheng, B.J.; He, Y.Q.; Liu, X.L.; Zhuang, Z.X.; Cheung, C.L.; Luo, S.W.; Li, P.H.; Zhang, L.J.; Guan, Y.J.; et al. Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China. Science 2003, 302, 276–278. [CrossRef]
23. Hu, B.; Zeng, L.P.; Yang, X.L.; Ge, X.Y.; Zhang, W.; Li, B.; Xie, J.Z.; Shen, X.R.; Zhang, Y.Z.; Wang, N.; et al. Discovery of a rich gene pool of bat SARS-related coronaviruses provides new insights into the origin of SARS coronavirus. PLoS Pathog. 2017, 13, e1006698. [CrossRef]
24. Memish, Z.A.; Mishra, N.; Olival, K.J.; Fagbo, S.F.; Kapoor, V.; Epstein, J.H.; Alhakeem, R.; Durosinloun, A.; Al Asmari, M.; Islam, A.; et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2013, 19, 1819–1823. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Lau, S.K.P.; Zhang, L.; Luk, H.K.H.; Xiong, L.; Peng, X.; Li, K.S.M.; He, X.; Zhao, P.S.; Fan, R.Y.Y.; Wong, A.C.P.; et al. Receptor usage of a novel bat lineage C betacoronavirus reveals evolution of MERS-related coronavirus spike proteins for human DPP4 binding. J. Infect. Dis. 2018. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Hemida, M.G.; Chu, D.K.; Poon, L.L.; Perera, R.A.; Alhammadi, M.A.; Ng, H.Y.; Siu, L.Y.; Guan, Y.; Alnaeem, A.; Peiris, M. MERS coronavirus in dromedary camel herd, Saudi Arabia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014, 20, 1231–1234. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Lau, S.K.; Woo, P.C.; Li, K.S.; Huang, Y.; Tsoi, H.W.; Wong, B.H.; Wong, S.S.; Leung, S.Y.; Chan, K.H.; Yuen, K.Y. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102, 14040–14045. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Li, W.; Shi, Z.; Yu, M.; Ren, W.; Smith, C.; Epstein, J.H.; Wang, H.; Crameri, G.; Hu, Z.; Zhang, H.; et al. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science 2005, 310, 676–679. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Ge, X.Y.; Li, J.L.; Yang, X.L.; Chmura, A.A.; Zhu, G.; Epstein, J.H.; Mazet, J.K.; Hu, B.; Zhang, W.; Peng, C.; et al. Isolation and characterization of a bat SARS-like coronavirus that uses the ACE2 receptor. Nature 2013, 503, 535–538. [CrossRef]
30. Kuehn, B.M. More evidence emerges that bats may have spread SARS. JAMA 2013, 310, 2138. [CrossRef]
31. Zheng, B.J.; Wong, K.H.; Zhou, J.; Wong, K.L.; Young, B.W.; Lu, L.W.; Lee, S.S. SARS-related virus predating SARS outbreak, Hong Kong. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004, 10, 176–178. [CrossRef]
32. Falzarano, D.; Kamissoko, B.; de Wit, E.; Maiga, O.; Cronin, J.; Samake, K.; Traore, A.; Milne-Price, S.; Munster, V.J.; Sogoba, N.; et al. Dromedary camels in northern Mali have high seropositivity to MERS-CoV. One Health 2017, 3, 41–43. [CrossRef]
33. Muller, M.A.; Corman, V.M.; Jores, J.; Meyer, B.; Younan, M.; Liljander, A.; Bosch, B.J.; Lattwein, E.; Hilali, M.; Musa, B.E.; et al. MERS coronavirus neutralizing antibodies in camels, Eastern Africa, 1983-1997. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014, 20, 2093–2095. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Reusken, C.B.; Messadi, L.; Feyisa, A.; Ularamu, H.; Godeke, G.J.; Danmarwa, A.; Dawo, F.; Jemli, M.; Melaku, S.; Shamaki, D.; et al. Geographic distribution of MERS coronavirus among dromedary camels, Africa. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014, 20, 1370–1374. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
35. Deem, S.L.; Fevre, E.M.; Kinnaird, M.; Browne, A.S.; Muloi, D.; Godeke, G.J.; Koopmans, M.; Reusken, C.B. Serological Evidence of MERS-CoV Antibodies in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedaries) in Laikipia County, Kenya. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0140125. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
36. Alexandersen, S.; Kobinger, G.P.; Soule, G.; Wernery, U. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus antibody reactors among camels in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, in 2005. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2014, 61, 105–108. [CrossRef]
37. Reusken, C.B.E.M.; Haagmans, B.L.; Müller, M.A.; Gutierrez, C.; Godeke, G.-J.; Meyer, B.; Muth, D.; Raj, V.S.; Vries, L.S.-D.; Corman, V.M.; et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus neutralising serum antibodies in dromedary camels: A comparative serological study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2013, 13, 859–866. [CrossRef]
38. Raj, V.S.; Farag, E.A.; Reusken, C.B.; Lamers, M.M.; Pas, S.D.; Voermans, J.; Smits, S.L.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Al-Mawlawi, N.; Al-Romaihi, H.E.; et al. Isolation of MERS coronavirus from a dromedary camel, Qatar, 2014. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014, 20, 1339–1342. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Conzade, R.; Grant, R.; Malik, M.R.; Elkholy, A.; Elhakim, M.; Samhouri, D.; Ben Embarek, P.K.; Van Kerkhove, M.D. Reported Direct and Indirect Contact with Dromedary Camels among Laboratory-Confirmed MERS-CoV Cases. Viruses 2018, 10. [CrossRef]
40. Alshukairi, A.N.; Zheng, J.; Zhao, J.; Nehdi, A.; Baharoon, S.A.; Layqah, L.; Bokhari, A.; Al Johani, S.M.; Samman, N.; Boudjelal, M.; et al. High Prevalence of MERS-CoV Infection in Camel Workers in Saudi Arabia. MBio 2018, 9. [CrossRef]
41. Anthony, S.J.; Gilardi, K.; Menachery, V.D.; Goldstein, T.; Ssebide, B.; Mbabazi, R.; Navarrete-Macias, I.; Liang, E.; Wells, H.; Hicks, A.; et al. Further Evidence for Bats as the Evolutionary Source of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus. MBio 2017, 8. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
42. Chastel, C. Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS): Bats or dromedary, which of them is responsible? Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 2014, 107, 69–73. [CrossRef]
43. Widagdo, W.; Begeman, L.; Schipper, D.; Run, P.R.V.; Cunningham, A.A.; Kley, N.; Reusken, C.B.; Haagmans, B.L.; van den Brand, J.M.A. Tissue Distribution of the MERS-Coronavirus Receptor in Bats. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 1193. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Woo, P.C.Y.; Lau, S.K.P.; Li, K.S.M.; Tsang, A.K.L.; Yuen, K.-Y. Genetic relatedness of the novel human group C betacoronavirus to Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4 and Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2012, 1, e35. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. Ithete, N.L.; Stoffberg, S.; Corman, V.M.; Cottontail, V.M.; Richards, L.R.; Schoeman, M.C.; Drosten, C.; Drexler, J.F.; Preiser, W. Close relative of human Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bat, South Africa. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2013, 19, 1697–1699. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Wang, Q.; Qi, J.; Yuan, Y.; Xuan, Y.; Han, P.; Wan, Y.; Ji, W.; Li, Y.; Wu, Y.; Wang, J.; et al. Bat origins of MERS-CoV supported by bat coronavirus HKU4 usage of human receptor CD26. Cell Host Microbe 2014, 16, 328–337. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
47. Luo, C.M.; Wang, N.; Yang, X.L.; Liu, H.Z.; Zhang, W.; Li, B.; Hu, B.; Peng, C.; Geng, Q.B.; Zhu, G.J.; et al. Discovery of novel bat coronaviruses in south China that use the same receptor as MERS coronavirus. J. Virol. 2018. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Corman, V.M.; Jores, J.; Meyer, B.; Younan, M.; Liljander, A.; Said, M.Y.; Gluecks, I.; Lattwein, E.; Bosch, B.J.; Drexler, J.F.; et al. Antibodies against MERS coronavirus in dromedary camels, Kenya, 1992–2013. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014, 20, 1319–1322. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. van der Hoek, L.; Pyrc, K.; Jebbink, M.F.; Vermeulen-Oost, W.; Berkhout, R.J.; Wolthers, K.C.; Wertheim-van Dillen, P.M.; Kaandorp, J.; Spaargaren, J.; Berkhout, B. Identification of a new human coronavirus. Nat. Med. 2004, 10, 368–373. [CrossRef]
50. Abdul-Rasool, S.; Fielding, B.C. Understanding Human Coronavirus HCoV-NL63. Open Virol. J. 2010, 4, 76–84. [CrossRef]
51. Pyrc, K.; Dijkman, R.; Deng, L.; Jebbink, M.F.; Ross, H.A.; Berkhout, B.; van der Hoek, L. Mosaic structure of human coronavirus NL63, one thousand years of evolution. J. Mol. Biol. 2006, 364, 964–973. [CrossRef]
52. Huynh, J.; Li, S.; Yount, B.; Smith, A.; Sturges, L.; Olsen, J.C.; Nagel, J.; Johnson, J.B.; Agnihothram, S.; Gates, J.E.; et al. Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 12816–12825. [CrossRef]
53. Tao, Y.; Shi, M.; Chommanard, C.; Queen, K.; Zhang, J.; Markotter, W.; Kuzmin, I.V.; Holmes, E.C.; Tong, S. Surveillance of Bat Coronaviruses in Kenya Identifies Relatives of Human Coronaviruses NL63 and 229E and Their Recombination History. J. Virol. 2017, 91. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. McIntosh, K.; Dees, J.H.; Becker, W.B.; Kapikian, A.Z.; Chanock, R.M. Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1967, 57, 933–940. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55. Pfefferle, S.; Oppong, S.; Drexler, J.F.; Gloza-Rausch, F.; Ipsen, A.; Seebens, A.; Müller, M.A.; Annan, A.; Vallo, P.; Adu-Sarkodie, Y.; et al. Distant Relatives of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus and Close Relatives of Human Coronavirus 229E in Bats, Ghana. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2009, 15, 1377–1384. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
56. Crossley, B.M.; Mock, R.E.; Callison, S.A.; Hietala, S.K. Identification and characterization of a novel alpaca respiratory coronavirus most closely related to the human coronavirus 229E. Viruses 2012, 4, 3689–3700. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57. Corman, V.M.; Baldwin, H.J.; Tateno, A.F.; Zerbinati, R.M.; Annan, A.; Owusu, M.; Nkrumah, E.E.; Maganga, G.D.; Oppong, S.; Adu-Sarkodie, Y.; et al. Evidence for an Ancestral Association of Human Coronavirus 229E with Bats. J. Virol. 2015, 89, 11858–11870. [CrossRef]
58. Corman, V.M.; Eckerle, I.; Memish, Z.A.; Liljander, A.M.; Dijkman, R.; Jonsdottir, H.; Juma Ngeiywa, K.J.; Kamau, E.; Younan, M.; Al Masri, M.; et al. Link of a ubiquitous human coronavirus to dromedary camels. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2016, 113, 9864–9869. [CrossRef]
59. Lau, S.K.P.; Fan, R.Y.Y.; Luk, H.K.H.; Zhu, L.; Fung, J.; Li, K.S.M.; Wong, E.Y.M.; Ahmed, S.S.; Chan, J.F.W.; Kok, R.K.H.; et al. Replication of MERS and SARS coronaviruses in bat cells offers insights to their ancestral origins. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2018, 7, 209. [CrossRef]
60. Pensaert, M.B.; de Bouck, P. A new coronavirus-like particle associated with diarrhea in swine. Arch. Virol. 1978, 58, 243–247. [CrossRef]
61. Kocherhans, R.; Bridgen, A.; Ackermann, M.; Tobler, K. Completion of the porcine epidemic diarrhoea coronavirus (PEDV) genome sequence. Virus Genes 2001, 23, 137–144. [CrossRef]
62. Choudhury, B.; Dastjerdi, A.; Doyle, N.; Frossard, J.P.; Steinbach, F. From the field to the lab—An European view on the global spread of PEDV. Virus Res. 2016. [CrossRef]
63. Opriessnig, T.; Gerber, P.F.; Shen, H.; de Castro, A.; Zhang, J.; Chen, Q.; Halbur, P. Evaluation of the efficacy of a commercial inactivated genogroup 2b-based porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) vaccine and experimental live genogroup 1b exposure against 2b challenge. Vet. Res. 2017, 48, 69. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. Lee, S.H.; Yang, D.K.; Kim, H.H.; Cho, I.S. Efficacy of inactivated variant porcine epidemic diarrhea virus vaccines in growing pigs. Clin. Exp. Vaccine Res. 2018, 7, 61–69. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65. Zhang, J.; Guo, L.; Xu, Y.; Yang, L.; Shi, H.; Feng, L.; Wang, Y. Characterization of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus infectivity in human embryonic kidney cells. Arch. Virol. 2017, 162, 2415–2419. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66. Banerjee, A.; Rapin, N.; Miller, M.; Griebel, P.; Zhou, Y.; Munster, V.; Misra, V. Generation and Characterization of Eptesicus fuscus (Big brown bat) kidney cell lines immortalized using the Myotis polyomavirus large T-antigen. J. Virol. Methods 2016, 237, 166–173. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Plowright, R.K.; Peel, A.J.; Streicker, D.G.; Gilbert, A.T.; McCallum, H.; Wood, J.; Baker, M.L.; Restif, O. Transmission or Within-Host Dynamics Driving Pulses of Zoonotic Viruses in Reservoir-Host Populations. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2016, 10, e0004796. [CrossRef]
68. Amman, B.R.; Carroll, S.A.; Reed, Z.D.; Sealy, T.K.; Balinandi, S.; Swanepoel, R.; Kemp, A.; Erickson, B.R.; Comer, J.A.; Campbell, S.; et al. Seasonal pulses of Marburg virus circulation in juvenile Rousettus aegyptiacus bats coincide with periods of increased risk of human infection. PLoS Pathog. 2012, 8, e1002877. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. Schuh, A.J.; Amman, B.R.; Jones, M.E.; Sealy, T.K.; Uebelhoer, L.S.; Spengler, J.R.; Martin, B.E.; Coleman-McCray, J.A.; Nichol, S.T.; Towner, J.S. Modelling filovirus maintenance in nature by experimental transmission of Marburg virus between Egyptian rousette bats. Nat. Commun. 2017, 8, 14446. [CrossRef]
70. Plowright, R.K.; Field, H.E.; Smith, C.; Divljan, A.; Palmer, C.; Tabor, G.; Daszak, P.; Foley, J.E. Reproduction and nutritional stress are risk factors for Hendra virus infection in little red flying foxes (Pteropus scapulatus). Proc. Biol. Sci. 2008, 275, 861–869. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
71. Davy, C.M.; Donaldson, M.E.; Subudhi, S.; Rapin, N.; Warnecke, L.; Turner, J.M.; Bollinger, T.K.; Kyle, C.J.; Dorville, N.A.S.; Kunkel, E.L.; et al. White-nose syndrome is associated with increased replication of a naturally persisting coronaviruses in bats. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 15508. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
72. Anthony, S.J.; Johnson, C.K.; Greig, D.J.; Kramer, S.; Che, X.; Wells, H.; Hicks, A.L.; Joly, D.O.; Wolfe, N.D.; Daszak, P. et al. Global patterns in coronavirus diversity. Virus Evol. 2017, 3, vex012. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
73. Baric, R.S.; Fu, K.; Schaad, M.C.; Stohlman, S.A. Establishing a genetic recombination map for murine coronavirus strain A59 complementation groups. Virology 1990, 177, 646–656. [CrossRef]
74. Lau, S.K.; Li, K.S.; Huang, Y.; Shek, C.T.; Tse, H.; Wang, M.; Choi, G.K.; Xu, H.; Lam, C.S.; Guo, R.; et al. Ecoepidemiology and complete genome comparison of different strains of severe acute respiratory syndrome-related Rhinolophus bat coronavirus in China reveal bats as a reservoir for acute, self-limiting infection that allows recombination events. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 2808–2819. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
75. Wang, M.N.; Zhang, W.; Gao, Y.T.; Hu, B.; Ge, X.Y.; Yang, X.L.; Zhang, Y.Z.; Shi, Z.L. Longitudinal surveillance of SARS-like coronaviruses in bats by quantitative real-time PCR. Virol. Sin. 2016, 31, 78–80. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
76. Papenfuss, A.T.; Baker, M.L.; Feng, Z.P.; Tachedjian, M.; Crameri, G.; Cowled, C.; Ng, J.; Janardhana, V.; Field, H.E.; Wang, L.F. The immune gene repertoire of an important viral reservoir, the Australian black flying fox. BMC Genom. 2012, 13, 261. [CrossRef]
77. Lee, A.K.; Kulcsar, K.A.; Elliott, O.; Khiabanian, H.; Nagle, E.R.; Jones, M.E.; Amman, B.R.; Sanchez-Lockhart, M.; Towner, J.S.; Palacios, G.; et al. De novo transcriptome reconstruction and annotation of the Egyptian rousette bat. BMC Genom. 2015, 16, 1033. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Shaw, T.I.; Srivastava, A.; Chou, W.C.; Liu, L.; Hawkinson, A.; Glenn, T.C.; Adams, R.; Schountz, T. Transcriptome sequencing and annotation for the Jamaican fruit bat (Artibeus jamaicensis). PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e48472. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Cowled, C.; Baker, M.; Tachedjian, M.; Zhou, P.; Bulach, D.; Wang, L.F. Molecular characterisation of Toll-like receptors in the black flying fox Pteropus alecto. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 2011, 35, 7–18. [CrossRef]
80. Cowled, C.; Baker, M.L.; Zhou, P.; Tachedjian, M.; Wang, L.F. Molecular characterisation of RIG-I-like helicases in the black flying fox, Pteropus alecto. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 2012, 36, 657–664. [CrossRef]
81. Zhou, P.; Cowled, C.; Mansell, A.; Monaghan, P.; Green, D.; Wu, L.; Shi, Z.; Wang, L.F.; Baker, M.L. IRF7 in the Australian black flying fox, Pteropus alecto: Evidence for a unique expression pattern and functional conservation. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e103875. [CrossRef]
82. Zhou, P.; Tachedjian, M.; Wynne, J.W.; Boyd, V.; Cui, J.; Smith, I.; Cowled, C.; Ng, J.H.; Mok, L.; Michalski, W.P.; et al. Contraction of the type I IFN locus and unusual constitutive expression of IFN-alpha in bats. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2016, 113, 2696–2701. [CrossRef]
83. Kepler, T.B.; Sample, C.; Hudak, K.; Roach, J.; Haines, A.; Walsh, A.; Ramsburg, E.A. Chiropteran types I and II interferon genes inferred from genome sequencing traces by a statistical gene-family assembler. BMC Genom. 2010, 11, 444. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Pavlovich, S.S.; Lovett, S.P.; Koroleva, G.; Guito, J.C.; Arnold, C.E.; Nagle, E.R.; Kulcsar, K.; Lee, A.; Thibaud-Nissen, F.; Hume, A.J.; et al. The Egyptian rousette Genome Reveals Unexpected Features of Bat Antiviral Immunity. Cell 2018, 173, 1098–1110. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
85. Arnold, C.E.; Guito, J.C.; Altamura, L.A.; Lovett, S.P.; Nagle, E.R.; Palacios, G.F.; Sanchez-Lockhart, M.; Towner, J.S. Transcriptomics Reveal Antiviral Gene Induction in the Egyptian rousette Bat Is Antagonized In Vitro by Marburg Virus Infection. Viruses 2018, 10. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
86. Liang, Y.Z.; Wu, L.J.; Zhang, Q.; Zhou, P.; Wang, M.N.; Yang, X.L.; Ge, X.Y.; Wang, L.F.; Shi, Z.L. Cloning, expression, and antiviral activity of interferon beta from the Chinese microbat, Myotis davidii. Virol. Sin. 2015, 30, 425–432. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
87. Banerjee, A.; Rapin, N.; Bollinger, T.; Misra, V. Lack of inflammatory gene expression in bats: A unique role for a transcription repressor. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 2232. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
88. Li, J.; Zhang, G.; Cheng, D.; Ren, H.; Qian, M.; Du, B. Molecular characterization of RIG-I, STAT-1 and IFN-beta in the horseshoe bat. Gene 2015, 561, 115–123. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
89. Biesold, S.E.; Ritz, D.; Gloza-Rausch, F.; Wollny, R.; Drexler, J.F.; Corman, V.M.; Kalko, E.K.; Oppong, S.; Drosten, C.; Muller, M.A. Type I interferon reaction to viral infection in interferon-competent, immortalized cell lines from the African fruit bat Eidolon helvum. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e28131. [CrossRef]
90. Glennon, N.B.; Jabado, O.; Lo, M.K.; Shaw, M.L. Transcriptome Profiling of the Virus-Induced Innate Immune Response in Pteropus vampyrus and Its Attenuation by Nipah Virus Interferon Antagonist Functions. J. Virol. 2015, 89, 7550–7566. [CrossRef]
91. Menachery, V.D.; Mitchell, H.D.; Cockrell, A.S.; Gralinski, L.E.; Yount, B.L., Jr.; Graham, R.L.; McAnarney, E.T.; Douglas, M.G.; Scobey, T.; Beall, A.; et al. MERS-CoV Accessory ORFs Play Key Role for Infection and Pathogenesis. MBio 2017, 8. [CrossRef]
92. Niemeyer, D.; Zillinger, T.; Muth, D.; Zielecki, F.; Horvath, G.; Suliman, T.; Barchet, W.; Weber, F.; Drosten, C.; Muller, M.A. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus accessory protein 4a is a type I interferon antagonist. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 12489–12495. [CrossRef]
93. Xing, Y.; Chen, J.; Tu, J.; Zhang, B.; Chen, X.; Shi, H.; Baker, S.C.; Feng, L.; Chen, Z. The papain-like protease of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus negatively regulates type I interferon pathway by acting as a viral deubiquitinase. J. Gen. Virol. 2013, 94, 1554–1567. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
94. Cao, L.; Ge, X.; Gao, Y.; Herrler, G.; Ren, Y.; Ren, X.; Li, G. Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus inhibits dsRNA-induced interferon-beta production in porcine intestinal epithelial cells by blockade of the RIG-I-mediated pathway. Virol. J. 2015, 12, 127. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
95. Ding, Z.; Fang, L.; Jing, H.; Zeng, S.; Wang, D.; Liu, L.; Zhang, H.; Luo, R.; Chen, H.; Xiao, S. Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus nucleocapsid protein antagonizes beta interferon production by sequestering the interaction between IRF3 and TBK1. J. Virol. 2014, 88, 8936–8945. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
96. Scobey, T.; Yount, B.L.; Sims, A.C.; Donaldson, E.F.; Agnihothram, S.S.; Menachery, V.D.; Graham, R.L.; Swanstrom, J.; Bove, P.F.; Kim, J.D.; et al. Reverse genetics with a full-length infectious cDNA of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110, 16157–16162. [CrossRef]
97. Watanabe, S.; Masangkay, J.S.; Nagata, N.; Morikawa, S.; Mizutani, T.; Fukushi, S.; Alviola, P.; Omatsu, T.; Ueda, N.; Iha, K.; et al. Bat coronaviruses and experimental infection of bats, the Philippines. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16, 1217–1223. [CrossRef]
98. Munster, V.J.; Adney, D.R.; van Doremalen, N.; Brown, V.R.; Miazgowicz, K.L.; Milne-Price, S.; Bushmaker, T.; Rosenke, R.; Scott, D.; Hawkinson, A.; et al. Replication and shedding of MERS-CoV in Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis). Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 21878. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
99. Woo, P.C.Y.; Lau, S.K.P.; Chen, Y.; Wong, E.Y.M.; Chan, K.H.; Chen, H.; Zhang, L.; Xia, N.; Yuen, K.Y. Rapid detection of MERS coronavirus-like viruses in bats: pote1ntial for tracking MERS coronavirus transmission and animal origin. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2018, 7, 18. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
100. Widagdo, W.; Raj, V.S.; Schipper, D.; Kolijn, K.; van Leenders, G.; Bosch, B.J.; Bensaid, A.; Segales, J.; Baumgartner, W.; Osterhaus, A.; et al. Differential Expression of the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Receptor in the Upper Respiratory Tracts of Humans and Dromedary Camels. J. Virol. 2016, 90, 4838–4842. [CrossRef]
101. Meyerholz, D.K.; Lambertz, A.M.; McCray, P.B., Jr. Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 Distribution in the Human Respiratory Tract: Implications for the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome. Am. J. Pathol. 2016, 186, 78–86. [CrossRef]
102. Luis, A.D.; Hayman, D.T.; O’Shea, T.J.; Cryan, P.M.; Gilbert, A.T.; Pulliam, J.R.; Mills, J.N.; Timonin, M.E.; Willis, C.K.; Cunningham, A.A.; et al. A comparison of bats and rodents as reservoirs of zoonotic viruses: Are bats special? Proc. Biol. Sci. 2013, 280, 20122753. [CrossRef]
103. Plowright, R.K.; Eby, P.; Hudson, P.J.; Smith, I.L.; Westcott, D.; Bryden, W.L.; Middleton, D.; Reid, P.A.; McFarlane, R.A.; Martin, G.; et al. Ecological dynamics of emerging bat virus spillover. Proc. Biol. Sci. 2015, 282, 20142124. [CrossRef]
104. ClinicalTrials.gov. Community Intervention to Prevent Nipah Spillover. Available online: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/record/NCT01811784 (accessed on 17 March 2018).
105. Gurley, E. Ecological determinants of Nipah virus risk in Bangladesh: The convergence of people, bats, trees and a tasty drink. In Proceedings of the 3rd International One Health Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 15–18 March 2015.
106. Field, H.; Young, P.; Yob, J.M.; Mills, J.; Hall, L.; Mackenzie, J. The natural history of Hendra and Nipah viruses. Microbes Infect. 2001, 3, 307–314. [CrossRef]