Bats and zoonotic viruses: Can we confidently link bats with emerging deadly viruses?

Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz

Volumn 110, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 1-22

  Moratelli, Ricardo ^a,c   Calisher, Charles H ^b  

^a INSTITUTO OSWALDO CRUZ   (Brazil)

^b Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences   (United States)

^c DEPARTMENT OF PALEOBIOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

Bat immunology; Bat borne viruses; Biosafety; Chiroptera; Emerging infectious diseases; Zoonosis

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ANIMAL DISPERSAL; BAT; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES, EMERGING; DISEASE CARRIER; EPIDEMIC; EVOLUTION; GEOGRAPHY; HUMAN; IMMUNITY; IMMUNOLOGY; RABIES; TRANSMISSION; VIROLOGY; ZOONOSES;

ANIMAL DISTRIBUTION; ANIMALS; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; CHIROPTERA; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES, EMERGING; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; DISEASE RESERVOIRS; GEOGRAPHY; HUMANS; IMMUNITY; RABIES; ZOONOSES;

EID: 84923200621     PISSN: 00740276     EISSN: 16788060     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760150048     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Adams RA 2003. Bats of the Rocky Mountain West, natural history, ecology and conservation, University Press of Colorado, Boulder, 302 pp.
2. Adney DR, van Doremalen N, Brown VR, Bushmaker T, Scott D, Wit E, Bowen RA, Munster VJ 2014. Replication and shedding of MERS-CoV in upper respiratory tract of inoculated dromedary camels. Emerg Infect Dis 20: 1999-2005.
3. Agnelli P, Maltagliati G, Ducci L, Cannicci S 2011. Artificial roosts for bats: education and research. The “be a bat’s friend” project of the Natural History Museum of the University of Florence. HYSTRIX 22: 215-223.
4. Altringham J 1996. Bats, biology and behavior, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 262 pp.
5. Altringham J 2011. Bats, from evolution to conservation, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, xv + 342 pp.
6. Austad SN, Fischer KE 1991. Mammalian aging, metabolism and ecology: evidence from the bats and marsupials. J Gerontol 46: B47-B53.
7. Baer GM 1991. The natural history of rabies, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, 640 pp.
8. Baize S, Pannetier D, Oestereich L, Rieger T, Koivogui L, Magassouba N, Soropogui B, Sow MS, Keïta S, De Clerck H, Tiffany A, Dominguez G, Loua M, Traoré A, Kolié M, Malano ER, Heleze E, Bocquin A, Mély S, Raoul H, Caro V, Cadar D, Gabriel M, Pahlmann M, Tappe D, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Impouma B, Diallo AK, Formenty P, Van Herp M, Günther S 2014. Emergence of Zaire ebola virus disease in Guinea. N Engl J Med 371: 1418-1425.
9. Baker KS, Suu-Ire R, Barr J, Hayman DT, Broder CC, Horton DL, Durrant C, Murcia PR, Cunningham AA, Wood JL 2013a. Viral antibody dynamics in a chiropteran host. J Anim Ecol 83: 415-428.
10. Baker ML, Schountz T, Wang LF 2013b. Antiviral immune responses of bats: a review. Zoonoses Public Health 60: 104-116.
11. Barr JA, Smith C, Marsh GA, Field H, Wang L-F 2012. Evidence of bat origin for Menangle virus, a zoonotic paramyxovirus first isolated from diseased pigs. J Gen Virol 93: 2590-2594.
12. Bermingham C, Chand MA, Brown CS, Aarons E, Tong C, Langrish C, Hoschler K, Brown K, Galiano M, Myers R, Pebody RG, Green HK, Boddington NL, Gopal R, Price N, Newsholme W, Drosten C, Fouchier RA, Zambon M 2012. Severe respiratory illness caused by a novel coronavirus in a patient transferred to the United Kingdom from the Middle East, September 2012. Euro Surveill 17: 1-5.
13. Blackwood JC, Streicker DG, Altizer S, Rohani P 2013. Resolving the roles of immunity, pathogenesis and immigration for rabies persistence in vampire bats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110: 20837-20842.
14. Blehert DS, Hicks AC, Behr M, Meteyer CU, Berlowski-Zier BM, Buckles EL, Coleman JT, Darling SR, Gargas A, Niver R, Okoniewski JC, Rudd RJ, Stone WB 2009. Bat white-nose syndrome: an emerging fungal pathogen? Science 323: 227.
15. Boonman A, Bumrungsri S, Yovel Y 2014. Nonecholocating fruit bats produce biosonar clicks with their wings. Current Biology 24: 2962-2967.
16. Bouliere F 1958. The comparative biology of aging. J Gerontol 13: 16-24.
17. Bouma HR, Carey HV, Kroese FG 2010. Hibernation: the immune system at rest? J Leukoc Biol 88: 619-624.
18. Brook CE, Dobson AP 2015. Bats as ‘special’ reservoirs for emerging zoonotic pathogens. Trends Microbiol doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2014.12.004.
19. Butler JE, Wertz N, Zhao Y, Zhang S, Bao Y, Bratsch S, Kunz TH, Whitaker Jr JO, Schountz T 2011. The two suborders of chiropterans have the canonical heavy-chain immunoglobulin (Ig) gene repertoire of eutherian mammals. Dev Comp Immunol 35: 273-284.
20. Calisher CH 2015. Viruses in bats: a historic review. In L-F Wang, Bats and viruses: from pathogen discovery to host genomics, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
21. Calisher CH, Childs JE, Field HE, Holmes KV, Schountz T 2006. Bats: important reservoir hosts of emerging viruses. Clin Microbiol Rev 19: 531-545.
22. Calisher CH, Ellison JA 2012. The other rabies viruses: the emergence and importance of lyssaviruses from bats and other vertebrates. Travel Med Infect Dis 10: 69-79.
23. Carini A 1911. Sur une grande epizootic de rage. Ann Inst Pasteur (Paris) 25: 843-846.
24. Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR 2006. Global mammal distributions, biodiversity hotspots and conservation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 19374-19379.
25. Chadha MS, Comer JA, Lowe L, Rota PA, Rollin PE, Bellini WJ, Ksiazek TG, Mishra A 2006. Nipah virus-associated encephalitis outbreak, Siliguri, India. Emerg Infect Dis 12: 235-240.
26. Chua KB, Bellini WJ, Rota PA, Harcourt BH, Tamin A, Lam SK, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Zaki SR, Shieh W, Goldsmith CS, Gubler DJ, Roehrig JT, Eaton B, Gould AR, Olson J, Field H, Daniels P, Ling AE, Peters CJ, Anderson LJ, Mahy BW 2000. Nipah virus: a recently emergent deadly paramyxovirus. Science 288: 1432-1435.
27. Chua KB, Koh CL, Hooi PS, Wee KF, Khong JH, Chua BH, Chan YP, Lim ME, Lam SK 2002. Isolation of Nipah virus from Malaysian island flying-foxes. Microbes Infect 4: 145-151.
28. Daszak P, Zambrana-Torrelio C, Bogich TL, Fernandez M, Epstein JH, Murray KA, Hamilton H 2013. Interdisciplinary approaches to understanding disease emergence: the past, present and future drives of Nipah virus emergence. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110: 3681-3688.
29. Davis A, Gordy P, Rudd R, Jarvis JA, Bowen RA 2012. Naturally acquired rabies virus infections in wild-caught bats. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 12: 55-60.
30. Dobson AP 2006. Response to: linking bats to emerging diseases. Science 311: 1999.
31. Dobson GE 1875. Conspectus of the suborders, families and genera of Chiroptera arranged according to their natural affinities. The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, series 4 16: 345-357.
32. Drexler JF, Corman VM, Gloza-Rausch F, Seebens A, Annan A, Ipsen A, Kruppa T, Müller MA, Kalko EK, Adu-Sarkodie Y, Oppong S, Drosten C 2009. Henipavirus RNA in African bats. PLoS ONE 4: e6367.
33. Drexler JF, Corman VM, Wegner T, Tateno AF, Zerbinati RM, Gloza-Rausch F, Seebens A, Müller MA, Drosten C 2011. Amplification of emerging viruses in a bat colony. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 449-456.
34. Eger JL 2008. Genus Cynomops O Thomas, 1920. In AL Gardner, Mammals of South America, Vol. 1, Marsupials, xenarthrans, shrews and bats, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, p. 402-407.
35. Epstein JH, Baker ML, Zambrana-Torrelio C, Middleton D, Barr JA, Dubovi E, Boyd V, Pope B, Todd S, Crameri G, Walsh A, Pelican K, Fielder MD, Davies AJ, Wang LF, Daszak P 2013. Duration of maternal antibodies against canine distemper virus and Hendra virus in pteropid bats. PLoS ONE 8: e67584.
36. Fenton MB 1983. Just bats, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 165 pp.
37. Fenton MB, Davison M, Kunz TH, McCracken GF, Racey PA, Tuttle MD 2006. Linking bats to emerging diseases. Science 311: 1998-1999.
38. Fenton MB, Simmons NB 2015. Bats, a world of science and mystery, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 303 pp.
39. Fraser GC, Hooper PT, Lunt RA, Gould AR, Gleeson LJ, Hyatt AD, Russell GM, Kattenbelt JA 1996. Encephalitis caused by a lyssavirus in fruit bats in Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 2: 327-331.
40. Gire SK, Goba A, Andersen KG, Sealfon RS, Park DJ, Kanneh L, Jalloh S, Momoh M, Fullah M, Dudas G, Wohl S, Moses LM, Yozwiak NL, Winnicki S, Matranga CB, Malboeuf CM, Qu J, Gladden AD, Schaffner SF, Yang X, Jiang PP, Nekoui M, Colubri A, Coomber MR, Fonnie M, Moigboi A, Gbakie M, Kamara FK, Tucker V, Konuwa E, Saffa S, Sellu J, Jalloh AA, Kovoma A, Koninga J, Mustapha I, Kargbo K, Foday M, Yillah M, Kanneh F, Robert W, Massally JL, Chapman SB, Bochicchio J, Murphy C, Nusbaum C, Young S, Birren BW, Grant DS, Scheiffelin JS, Lander ES, Happi C, Gevao SM, Gnirke A, Rambaut A, Garry RF, Khan SH, Sabeti PC 2014. Genomic surveillance elucidates Ebola virus origin and transmission during the 2014 outbreak. Science 345: 1369-1372.
41. Goldwasser RA, Kissling RE 1958. Fluorescent antibody staining of street and fixed rabies virus antigens. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 98: 219-223.
42. Gould EG 1988. Wing-clapping sounds of Eonycteris spelaea (Pteropodidae) in Malaysia. J Mammal 69: 378-379.
43. Hall L, Richards G 2000. Flying foxes, fruit and blossom bats of Australia, Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida, viii + 135 pp.
44. Halpin K, Young PL, Field HE, Mackenzie JL 2000. Isolation of Hendra virus from pteropid bats: a natural reservoir of Hendra virus. J Gen Virol 81: 1927-1932.
45. Hayman DT, Suu-Ire R, Breed AC, McEachern JA, Wang L, Wood JL, Cunningham AA 2008. Evidence of henipavirus infection in West African fruit bats. PLoS ONE 3: e2739.
46. Ithete NL, Stoffberg S, Corman VM, Cottontail VM, Richards LR, Schoeman MC, Drosten C, Drexler JF, Preiser W 2013. Close relative of human Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bat, South Africa. Emerg Infect Dis 19: 1697-1699.
47. Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW, Dalgard DW, Johnson ED, Ksiazek TG, Hall WC, Peters CJ 1990. Preliminary report: isolation of Ebola virus from monkeys imported to USA. Lancet 335: 502-505.
48. Johnson KM, Lange JV, Webb PA, Murphy FA 1977. Isolation and partial characterisation of a new virus causing acute haemorrhagic fever in Zaire. Lancet 1: 569-571.
49. Jones G, Jacobs DS, Kunz TH, Willig MR, Racey PA 2009. Carpe noctem: the importance of bats as bioindicators. Endanger Species Res 8: 93-115.
50. Koopman KF 1984. A synopsis of the families of bats, part VII. Bat Research News 25: 25-29.
51. Koopman KF 1994. Chiroptera: systematics. Handbuch der zoologie, Vol. 8, part 60, Mammalia, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 217 pp.
52. Ksiazek TG, Erdman D, Goldsmith CS, Zaki SR, Peret T, Emery S, Tong S, Urbani C, Comer JA, Lim W, Rollin PE, Dowell SF, Ling AE, Humphrey CD, Shieh WJ, Guarner J, Paddock CD, Rota P, Fields B, De Risi J, Yang JY, Cox N, Hughes JM, LeDuc JW, Bellini WJ, Anderson LJ, SARS Working Group 2003. A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. N Engl J Med 348: 1953-1966.
53. Kunz TH, Braun de Torrez E, Bauer D, Lobova T, Fleming TH 2011. Ecosystem services provided by bats. Ann NY Acad Sci 1223: 1-38.
54. Kunz TH, Pierson ED 1994. Bats of the world: an introduction. In R Nowak, Walker’s bats of the world, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, p. 1-46.
55. Kupferschmidt K 2013. Link to MERS virus underscores bat’s puzzling threat. Science 341: 948-949.
56. Lau SK, Woo PC, Li KS, Huang Y, Tsoi HW, Wong BH, Wong SS, Leung SY, Chan KH, Yuen KY 2005. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 14040-14045.
57. Le Guenno B, Formenty P, Wyers M, Gounon P, Walker F, Boesch C 1995. Isolation and partial characterization of a new strain of Ebola virus. Lancet 345: 1271-1274.
58. Leroy EM, Kumulungui B, Pourrut X, Rouquet P, Hassanin A, Yaba P, Délicat A, Paweska JT, Gonzalez JP, Swanepoel R 2005. Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus. Nature 438: 575-576.
59. Li WD, Shi ZL, Yu M, Ren WZ, Smith C, Epstein JH, Wang H, Crameri G, Hu Z, Zhang H, Zhang J, McEachern J, Field H, Daszak P, Eaton BT, Zhang S, Wang LF 2005. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science 310: 676-679.
60. Lima EQ 1934. A transmissão da raiva dos herbívoros pelos morcegos hematófagos da familia Desmondontidae. Rev Dep Nac Prod Anim (Rio de Janeiro) 1: 165-175.
61. Lobova TA, Geiselman CK, Mori SA 2009. Seed dispersal by bats in the Neotropics, The New York Botanical Garden Press, New York, 471 pp.
62. Luckett WP 1980. The use of fetal membrane data in assessing chiropteran phylogeny. In DE Wilson, AL Gardner (eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Bat Research Conference, Texas Tech Press, Lubbock, p. 245-265.
63. Luis AD, Hayman DT, O’Shea TJ, Cryan PM, Gilbert AT, Pulliam JR, Mills JN, Timonin ME, Willis CK, Cunningham AA, Fooks AR, Rupprecht CE, Wood JL, Webb CT 2013. A comparison of bats and rodents as reservoirs of zoonotic viruses: are bats special? Proc Biol Sci 280: 1-9.
64. Mandl JN, Ahmed R, Barreiro LB, Daszak P, Epstein JH, Virgin HW, Feinberg MB 2015. Reservoir host immune responses to emerging zoonotic viruses. Cell 160: 20-35.
65. Marsh GA, de Jong C, Barr JA, Tachedjian M, Smith C, Middleton D, Yu M, Todd S, Foord AJ, Haring V, Payne J, Robinson R, Broz I, Crameri G, Field HE, Wang LF 2012. Cedar virus: a novel henipavirus isolated from Australian bats. PLoS Pathog 8: e1002836.
66. Marshall LG, Webb SD, Sepkoski JJ, Raup DM 1982. Mammalian evolution and the Great American Interchange. Science 215: 1351-1357.
67. Melaun C, Werblow A, Busch MW, Klimpel S 2014. Bats as potential reservoir hosts for vector-borne diseases. In S Klimpel, H Mehlhorn, Bats (Chiroptera) as vectors of diseases and parasites, Parasitology Research Monographs 5, Springer-Verlag, Heidelbergh, p. 25-61.
68. Memish ZA, Mishra N, Olival KJ, Fagbo SF, Kapoor V, Epstein JH, Alhakeemm R, Durosinloun A, Asmari MA, Islam A, Kapoor A, Briese T, Daszak P, Rabeeah AAA, Lipkin WI 2013. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia. Emerg Infect Dis 19: 1819-1823.
69. Meteyer CU, Barber D, Mandl JN 2012. Pathology in euthermic bats with white nose syndrome suggests a natural manifestation of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. Virulence 3: 583-588.
70. Mickleburgh SP, Hutson AM, Racey PA, IUCN/SSC Chiroptera Specialist Group (compilers) 1992. Old World fruit bats: an action plan for their conservation, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, viii + 252 pp.
71. Mills JN, Childs JE, Ksiazek TG, Peters CJ, Velleca WM 1995. Methods for trapping and sampling small mammals for virologic testing, US Department of Health & Human Services, Atlanta, 61 pp.
72. Mühldorfer K, Speck S, Kurth A, Lesnik R, Freuling C, Müller T, Kramer-Schadt S, Wibbelt G 2011. Diseases and causes of death in European bats: dynamics in disease susceptibility and infection rates. PLoS ONE 6: e29773.
73. Muscarella R, Fleming TH 2007. The role of frugivorous bats in tropical forest succession. Biol Rev 82: 573-590.
74. Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, Fonseca GAB, Kent J 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853-858.
75. Negri A 1903. Beitrag zum studium der aetiologie der tollwuth. Z Hyg Infektionskr 43: 507-528.
76. Nowak R 1994. Walker’s bats of the world, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 287 pp.
77. O’Leary MA, Bloch JI, Flynn JJ, Gaudin TJ, Giallombardo A, Giannini NP, Goldberg SL, Kraatz BP, Luo Z, Meng J, Ni X, Novacek MJ, Perini FA, Randall Z, Rougier GW, Sargis EJ, Silcox MT, Simmons NB, Spaulding M, Velazco PM, Weksler M, Wible JR, Cirranello AL 2013. The placental mammal ancestor and the post-KPg radiation of placentals. Science 339: 662-667.
78. O’Shea TJ, Cryan PM, Cunningham AA, Fooks AR, Hayman DTS, Luis AD, Peel AJ, Plowright RK, Wood JLN 2014. Bat flight and zoonotic viruses. Emerg Infect Dis 20: 741-745.
79. Olival KJ, Hayman DTS 2014. Filoviruses in bats: current knowledge and future directions. Viruses 6: 1759-1788.
80. Osborne C, Cryan PM, O’Shea TJ, Oko LM, Ndaluka C, Calisher CH, Berglund AD, Klavetter ML, Bowen RA, Holmes KV, Dominguez SR 2011. Alphacoronaviruses in New World bats: prevalence, persistence, phylogeny and potential for interaction with humans. PLoS ONE 6: e19156.
81. Papenfuss AT, Baker ML, Feng ZP, Tachedjian M, Crameri G, Cowled C, Ng J, Janardhana V, Field HE, Wang LF 2012. The immune gene repertoire of an important viral reservoir, the Australian black flying-fox. BMC Genomics 13: 261.
82. Parrish CR, Holmes EC, Morens DM, Park E-C, Burke DS, Calisher CH, Laughlin CA, Saif LJ, Daszak P 2008. Cross-species viral transmission and the emergence of new epidemic diseases. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 72: 457-470.
83. Pawan JL 1936. The transmission of paralytic rabies in Trinidad by the vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus murinus Wagner, 1840). Ann Trop Med Parasitol 30: 101-129.
84. Pawan JL 1948. Fruit-eating bats and paralytic rabies in Trinidad. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 42: 173-177.
85. Pettigrew JD 1995. Flying primates: crashed, or crashed through? In PA Racey, SM Swift, Ecology, evolution and behavior of bats, Zoological Society of London Symposia 67, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 3-26.
86. Plowright RK, Eby P, Hudson PJ, Smith IL, Westcott D, Bryden WL, Middleton D, Reid PA, McFarlane RA, Martin G, Tabor GM, Skerratt LF, Anderson DL, Crameri G, Quammen D, Jordan D, Freeman P, Wang LF, Epstein JH, Marsh GA, Kung NY, McCallum H 2015. Ecological dynamics of emerging bat virus spillover. Proc Biol Sci 282: 2014-2124.
87. Podlutsky AJ, Khritankov AM, Ovodov ND, Austad SN 2005. A new field record for bat longevity. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 60: 1366-1368.
88. Poon LL, Chu DK, Chan KH, Wong OK, Ellis TM, Leung YH, Lau SK, Woo PC, Suen KY, Yuen KY, Guan Y, Peiris JS 2005. Identification of a novel coronavirus in bats. J Virol 79: 2001-2009.
89. Raj VS, Farag EA, Reusken CB, Lamers MM, Pas SD, Voermans J, Smits SL, Osterhaus AD, Al-Mawlawi N, Al-Romaihi HE, AlHajri MM, El-Sayed AM, Mohran KA, Ghobashy H, Alhajri F, Al-Thani M, Al-Marri SA, El-Maghraby MM, Koopmans MP, Haagmans BL 2014. Isolation of MERS coronavirus from a dromedary camel, Qatar, 2014. Emerg Infect Dis 20: 1339-1342.
90. Reynes JM, Counor D, Ong S, Faure C, Seng V, Molia S, Walston J, Georges-Courbot MC, Deubel V, Sarthou JL 2005. Nipah virus in Lyle’s flying foxes, Cambodia. Emerg Infect Dis 11: 1042-1047.
91. Rota PA, Oberste MS, Monroe SS, Nix WA, Campagnoli R, Icenogle JP, Peñaranda S, Bankamp B, Maher K, Chen MH, Tong S, Tamin A, Lowe L, Frace M, DeRisi JL, Chen Q, Wang D, Erdman DD, Peret TC, Burns C, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Sanchez A, Liffick S, Holloway B, Limor J, McCaustland K, Olsen-Rasmussen M, Fouchier R, Günther S, Osterhaus AD, Drosten C, Pallansch MA, Anderson LJ, Bellini WJ 2003. Characterization of a novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Science 300: 1394-1399.
92. Ryan PA, Martin L, Mackenzie JS, Kay BH 1997. Investigation of gray-headed flying foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) (Megachiroptera: Pteropodidae) and mosquitoes in the ecology of Ross River virus in Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 57: 476-482.
93. Rydell J, Speakman JR 1995. Evolution of nocturnality in bats: potential competitors and predators during their early history. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 54: 183-191.
94. Saéz AM, Weiss S, Nowak K, Lapeyre V, Zimmermann F, Düx A, Kühl HS, Kaba M, Regnaut S, Merkel K, Sachse A, Thiesen U, Villányi L, Boesch C, Dabrowski PW, Radonić A, Nitsche A, Leendertz SAJ, Petterson S, Becker S, Krähling V, Couacy-Hymann E, Akoua-Koffi C, Weber N, Schaade L, Fahr J, Borchert M, Gogarten JF, Calvignac-Spencer S, Leendertz FH 2015. In vestigating the zoonotic origin of the West African Ebola epidemic. EMBO Mol Med 7: 17-23.
95. Sazima I, Vogel S, Sazima M 1989. Bat pollitation of Encholirium glaziovii, a terrestrial bromeliad. Plant Syst Evol 168: 167-179.
96. Sazima M, Buzato S, Sazima I 2003. Dyssochroma viridiflorum (Solanaceae), a reproductively bat-dependent, epiphyte from the Atlantic rainforest in Brazil. Annals of Botany 92: 725-730.
97. Seim I, Fang X, Xiong Z, Lobanov AV, Huang Z, Ma S, Feng Y, Turanov AA, Zhu Y, Lenz TL, Gerashchenko MV, Fan D, Yim SH, Yao X, Jordan D, Xiong Y, Ma Y, Lyapunov AN, Chen G, Kulakova OI, Sun Y, Lee S-G, Bronson RT, Moskalev AA, Sunyaev SR, Zhang G, Krogh A, Wang J, Gladyshev VN 2013. Genome analysis reveals insights into physiology and longevity of the Brandt’s bat Myotis brandtii. Nat Commun 4: 1-8.
98. Selvey LA, Wells RM, McCormack JG, Ansford AJ, Murray K, Rogers RJ, Lavercombe PS, Selleck P, Sheridan JW 1995. Infection of humans and horses by a newly described morbillivirus. Med J Aust 162: 642-645.
99. Seymour C, Dickerman RW, Martin MS 1978a. Venezuelan encephalitis virus infection in neotropical bats. I. Natural infection in a Guatemalan enzootic focus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 27: 290-296.
100. Seymour C, Dickerman RW, Martin MS 1978b. Venezuelan encephalitis virus infection in neotropical bats. II. Experimental infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg 27: 297-306.
101. Shaw TI, Srivastava A, Chou WC, Liu L, Hawkinson A, Glenn TC, Adams R, Schountz T 2012. Transcriptome sequencing and annotation for the Jamaican fruit bat (Artibeus jamaicensis). PLoS ONE 7: e48472.
102. Simmons NB 1993. The importance of methods: Archontan phylogeny and cladistics analysis of morphological data. In RDE MacPhee, Primates and their relatives in phylogenetic perspective. Advances in Primatology Series, Plenum Publishing, New York, pp. 1-61.
103. Simmons NB 1994. The case for chiropteran monophyly. Am Mus Novit 3103: 1-54.
104. Simmons NB 1995. Bat relationships and the origin of flight. In PA Racey, SM Swift, Ecology, evolution and behavior of bats, Zoological Society of London Symposia 67, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 27-43.
105. Simmons NB 1998. A reappraisal of interfamilial relationships of bats. In TH Kunz, PA Racey, Bat biology and conservation, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, p. 3-26.
106. Simmons NB 2005. Order Chiroptera. In DE Wilson, DM Reeder, Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference, 3rd ed., Vol. 1, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, p. 312-529.
107. Simmons NB, Geisler JH 1998. Phylogenetic relationships of Icaronycteris, Archaeonycteris, Hassianycteris and Palaeochiropteryx to extant bat lineages with comments on the evolution of echolocation and foraging strategies in Microchiroptera. B Am Mus Nat Hist 235: 1-182.
108. Simmons NB, Novacek MJ, Baker RJ 1991. Approaches, methods and the future of the chiropteran monophyly controversy: a reply to J. D. Pettigrew. Syst Zool 40: 239-243.
109. Simmons NB, Seymour KL, Habersetzer J, Gunnell GF 2008. Primitive Early Eocene bat from Wyoming and the evolution of flight and echolocation. Nature 451: 818-821.
110. Simmons NB, Voss R 1998. The mammals of Paracou, French Guiana: a Neotropical lowland rainforest fauna, part 1, bats. B Am Mus Nat Hist 237: 1-219.
111. Simon R, Holderied MW, Koch CU, von Helversen O 2011. Floral acoustics: conspicuous echoes of a dish-shaped leaf attract bat pollinators. Science 333: 631-633.
112. Siu KL, Yeung ML, Kok KH, Yuen KS, Kew C, Lui PY, Chan CP, Tse H, Woo PC, Yuen KY, Jin DY 2014. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus 4a protein is a double-stranded RNA-binding protein that suppresses PACT-induced activation of RIG-I and MDA5 in the innate antiviral response. J Virol 88: 4866-4876.
113. Springer MS, Teeling EC, Madsen O, Stanhope MJ, Jong WW 2001. Integrating fossil and molecular data reconstruct bat echolocation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 6241-6246.
114. Steece R, Calisher CH 1989. Isolation of rabies virus from fetal tissues of Tadarida brasiliensis. J Wildl Dis 25: 329-334.
115. Sulkin SE, Allen R, Sims R, Singh KV 1966. Studies of arthropod-borne virus infections in Chiroptera. IV. Immune response of big brown bat (Eptesicus f. fuscus) maintained at various environmental temperatures to experimental Japanese B encephalitis virus infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 15: 418-427.
116. Swanepoel R, Leman PA, Burt FJ, Zachariades NA, Braack LE, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Zaki SR, Peters CJ 1996. Experimental inoculation of plants and animals with Ebola virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2: 321-325.
117. Swanepoel R, Smit SB, Rollin PE, Formenty P, Leman PA, Kemp A, Burt FJ, Grobbelaar AA, Croft J, Bausch DG, Zeller H, Leirs H, Braack LEO, Libande ML, Zaki S, Nichol ST, Ksiazek TG, Paweska JT 2007. Studies of reservoir hosts for Marburg virus. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 1847-1851.
118. Teeling EC, Dool S, Springer MS 2012. Phylogenies, fossils and functional genes: the evolution of echolocation in bats. In GF Gunnell, NB Simmons, Evolutionary history of bats: fossils, molecules and morphology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 1-22.
119. Towner JS, Amman BR, Sealy TK, Carroll SA, Comer JA, Kemp A, Swanepoel R, Paddock CD, Balinandi S, Khristova ML, Formenty PB, Albarino CG, Miller DM, Reed ZD, Kayiwa JT, Mills JN, Cannon DL, Greer PW, Byaruhanga E, Farnon EC, Atimnedi P, Okware S, Katongole-Mbidde E, Downing R, Tappero JW, Zaki SR, Ksiazek TG, Nichol ST, Rollin PE 2009. Isolation of genetically diverse Marburg viruses from Egyptian fruit bats. PLoS Pathog 5: e1000536.
120. Towner JS, Sealy TK, Khristova ML, Albariño CG, Conlan S, Reeder SA, Quan P-L, Lipkin WI, Downing R, Tappero JW, Okware SW, Lutwama J, Bakamutumaho B, Kayiwa J, Comer JA, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, Nichol ST 2008. Newly discovered Ebola virus associated with hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Uganda. PLoS Pathog 4: e1000212.
121. Van Den Bussche RA, Hoofer SR 2004. Phylogenetic relationships among recent chiropteran families and the importance of choosing appropriate out-group taxa. J Mammal 85: 321-330.
122. Voig CC, Zubaid A, Kunz TH, Kingston T 2011. Sources of assimilated proteins in Old and New World phytophagous bats. Biotropica 43: 108-113.
123. Voss R, Lunde DP, Simmons NB 2001. The mammals of Paracou, French Guiana, a Neotropical lowland rainforest fauna, part 2, nonvolant species. B Am Mus Nat Hist 263: 1-236.
124. Wacharapluesadee S, Lumlertdacha B, Boongird K, Wanghongsa S, Chanhome L, Rollin P, Stockton P, Rupprecht CE, Ksiazek TG, Hemachudha T 2005. Bat Nipah virus, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis 11: 1949-1951.
125. Wibbelt G, Moore MS, Schountz T, Voigt CC 2010. Emerging diseases in Chiroptera: why bats? Biol Lett 6: 438-440.
126. Wible JR, Novacek MJ 1988. Cranial evidence for the monophyletic origin of bats. Am Mus Novit 2911: 1-19.
127. Wilkinson GS, South JM 2002. Life history, ecology and longevity in bats. Aging Cell 1: 124-131.
128. Wilson DE 1973. Bat faunas: a trophic comparison. Syst Zool 22: 14-29.
129. Wilson DE 1997. Bats in question: the Smithsonian answer book, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, 168 pp.
130. Wilson DE, Reeder DM 2005. Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference, 3rd ed., Vol. 1, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2142 pp.
131. Witte EJ 1954. Bat rabies in Pennsylvania. Am J Public Health Nations Health 44: 186-187.
132. Wynne JW, Wang L-F 2013. Bats and viruses: friend or foe? PLoS Pathog 9: e1003651.
133. Zhang G, Cowled C, Shi Z, Huang Z, Bishop-Lilly KA, Fang X, Wynne JW, Xiong Z, Baker ML, Zhao W, Tachedjian M, Zhu Y, Zhou P, Jiang X, Ng J, Yang L, Wu L, Xiao J, Feng Y, Chen Y, Sun X, Zhang Y, Marsh GA, Crameri G, Broder CC, Frey KG, Wang LF, Wang J 2013. Comparative analysis of bat genomes provides insight into the evolution of flight and immunity. Science 339: 456-460.
134. Zhang H, Todd S, Tachedjian M, Barr JA, Luo M, Yu M, Marsh GA, Crameri G, Wang L-F 2012. A novel bat herpesvirus encodes homologues of major histocompatibility complex classes I and II, C-type lectin and a unique family of immune-related genes. J Virol 86: 8014-8030.
135. Zhou P, Cowled C, Mansell A, Monaghan P, Green D, Wu L, Shi Z, Wang LF, Baker ML 2014. IRF7 in the Australian black flying-fox, Pteropus alecto: evidence for a unique expression pattern and functional conservation. PLoS ONE 9: e103875.