Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease: JACC State-of-the-Art Review

Journal of the American College of Cardiology

Volumn 72, Issue 17, 2018, Pages 2054-2070

  Rajagopalan, Sanjay ^a,b   Al Kindi, Sadeer G ^a   Brook, Robert D ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS OF CLEVELAND   (United States)

^b CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

blood pressure; coronary artery disease; environment; insulin resistance; particulate matter; type 2 diabetes mellitus

Indexed keywords

AIR POLLUTION; AMBIENT AIR; AUTONOMIC DYSFUNCTION; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY; CHEMICAL ANALYSIS; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; CLIMATE CHANGE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISABILITY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GREENHOUSE EFFECT; HOUSEHOLD; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PARTICULATE MATTER; PERSONALIZED MEDICINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTHROMBIN TIME; REVIEW; STRATEGIC PLANNING; SYSTEMIC DISEASE; SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME; VASCULAR REMODELING; ADVERSE EVENT; AIR POLLUTANT; EXPOSURE; PREVENTION AND CONTROL; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTOR;

AIR POLLUTANTS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HUMANS; INHALATION EXPOSURE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 85054176359     PISSN: 07351097     EISSN: 15583597     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.07.099     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. Landrigan, P.J., Fuller, R., Acosta, N.J.R., et al. The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. Lancet 391 (2018), 462–512.
2. Fuller, R., Rahona, E., Fisher, S., et al. Pollution and non-communicable disease: time to end the neglect. Lancet Planet Health 2 (2018), e96–e98.
3. Cohen, A.J., Brauer, M., Burnett, R., et al. Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. Lancet 389 (2017), 1907–1918.
4. Brook, R.D., Rajagopalan, S., Pope, C.A. III, et al., American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, Council on the Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, and Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity and Metabolism. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: an update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 121 (2010), 2331–2378.
5. Newby, D.E., Mannucci, P.M., Tell, G.S., et al., ESC Working Group on Thrombosis, European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation; ESC Heart Failure Association. Expert position paper on air pollution and cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J 36 (2015), 83–93b.
6. Münzel, T., Sørensen, M., Gori, T., et al. Environmental stressors and cardio-metabolic disease: part II-mechanistic insights. Eur Heart J 38 (2017), 557–564.
7. Münzel, T., Sørensen, M., Gori, T., et al. Environmental stressors and cardio-metabolic disease: part I-epidemiologic evidence supporting a role for noise and air pollution and effects of mitigation strategies. Eur Heart J 38 (2017), 550–556.
8. Baldauf, R.W., Devlin, R.B., Gehr, P., et al. Ultrafine particle metrics and research considerations: review of the 2015 UFP Workshop. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 13, 2016, E1054.
9. Delfino, R.J., Sioutas, C., Malik, S., Potential role of ultrafine particles in associations between airborne particle mass and cardiovascular health. Environ Health Perspect 113 (2005), 934–946.
10. Stafoggia, M., Cesaroni, G., Peters, A., et al. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and incidence of cerebrovascular events: results from 11 European cohorts within the ESCAPE project. Environ Health Perspect 122 (2014), 919–925.
11. Rajagopalan, S., Brook, R.D., The indoor-outdoor air-pollution continuum and the burden of cardiovascular disease: an opportunity for improving global health. Glob Heart 7 (2012), 207–213.
12. McCracken, J.P., Wellenius, G.A., Bloomfield, G.S., et al. Household air pollution from solid fuel use: evidence for links to CVD. Glob Heart 7 (2012), 223–234.
13. Ueda, K., Shimizu, A., Nitta, H., Inoue, K., Long-range transported Asian Dust and emergency ambulance dispatches. Inhal Toxicol 24 (2012), 858–867.
14. World Health Organization. Air Pollution. 2018, WHO Available at: http://www.who.int/airpollution/en/ Accessed August 23, 2018.
15. Brook, R.D., Newby, D.E., Rajagopalan, S., The global threat of outdoor ambient air pollution to cardiovascular health: time for intervention. JAMA Cardiol 2 (2017), 353–354.
16. Larkin, A., Hystad, P., Towards personal exposures: how technology is changing air pollution and health research. Curr Envir Health Rpt 4 (2017), 463–471.
17. Burnett, R.T., Pope, C.A. III, Ezzati, M., et al. An integrated risk function for estimating the global burden of disease attributable to ambient fine particulate matter exposure. Environ Health Perspect 122 (2014), 397–403.
18. Brauer, M., Freedman, G., Frostad, J., et al. Ambient air pollution exposure estimation for the Global Burden of Disease 2013. Environ Sci Technol 50 (2016), 79–88.
19. Crouse, D.L., Peters, P.A., van Donkelaar, A., et al. Risk of nonaccidental and cardiovascular mortality in relation to long-term exposure to low concentrations of fine particulate matter: a Canadian national-level cohort study. Environ Health Perspect 120 (2012), 708–714.
20. Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., et al. Natural-cause mortality and long-term exposure to particle components: an analysis of 19 European cohorts within the multi-center ESCAPE project. Environ Health Perspect 123 (2015), 525–533.
21. Pinault, L.L., Weichenthal, S., Crouse, D.L., et al. Associations between fine particulate matter and mortality in the 2001 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort. Environ Res 159 (2017), 406–415.
22. Di, Q., Wang, Y., Zanobetti, A., et al. Air pollution and mortality in the Medicare population. N Engl J Med 376 (2017), 2513–2522.
23. Di, Q., Dai, L., Wang, Y., et al. Association of short-term exposure to air pollution with mortality in older adults. JAMA 318 (2017), 2446–2456.
24. Jerrett, M., Burnett, R.T., Pope, C.A. III, et al. Long-term ozone exposure and mortality. N Engl J Med 360 (2009), 1085–1095.
25. Lelieveld, J., Evans, J.S., Fnais, M., Giannadaki, D., Pozzer, A., The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale. Nature 525 (2015), 367–371.
26. 2.5 worldwide can prevent millions of premature deaths per year. Environ Health, 15, 2016, 88.
27. Shiraiwa, M., Ueda, K., Pozzer, A., et al. Aerosol health effects from molecular to global scales. Environ Sci Technol 51 (2017), 13545–13567.
28. 2.5 and daily deaths. Environ Health Perspect 110 (2002), 1025–1029.
29. Samoli, E., Peng, R., Ramsay, T., et al. Acute effects of ambient particulate matter on mortality in Europe and North America: results from the APHENA study. Environ Health Perspect 116 (2008), 1480–1486.
30. Mustafic, H., Jabre, P., Caussin, C., et al. Main air pollutants and myocardial infarction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 307 (2012), 713–721.
31. Nawrot, T.S., Perez, L., Künzli, N., Munters, E., Nemery, B., Public health importance of triggers of myocardial infarction: a comparative risk assessment. Lancet 377 (2011), 732–740.
32. Brook, R.D., Rajagopalan, S., Particulate matter air pollution and atherosclerosis. Curr Atheroscler Rep 12 (2010), 291–300.
33. Miller, K.A., Siscovick, D.S., Sheppard, L., et al. Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med 356 (2007), 447–458.
34. Cosselman, K.E., Navas-Acien, A., Kaufman, J.D., Environmental factors in cardiovascular disease. Nat Rev Cardiol 12 (2015), 627–642.
35. Weichenthal, S., Villeneuve, P.J., Burnett, R.T., et al. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter: association with nonaccidental and cardiovascular mortality in the Agricultural Health Study Cohort. Environ Health Perspect 122 (2014), 609–615.
36. 10 pollution in the Chinese population. Environ Res 136 (2015), 196–204.
37. Xie, W., Li, G., Zhao, D., et al. Relationship between fine particulate air pollution and ischaemic heart disease morbidity and mortality. Heart 101 (2015), 257–263.
38. Wong, C.M., Lai, H.K., Tsang, H., et al. Satellite-based estimates of long-term exposure to fine particles and association with mortality in elderly Hong Kong residents. Environ Health Perspect 123 (2015), 1167–1172.
39. Yin, P., Brauer, M., Cohen, A., et al. Long-term fine particulate matter exposure and nonaccidental and cause-specific mortality in a large national cohort of Chinese men. Environ Health Perspect, 125, 2017, 117002.
40. Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Stafoggia, M., et al. Long term exposure to ambient air pollution and incidence of acute coronary events: prospective cohort study and meta-analysis in 11 European cohorts from the ESCAPE Project. BMJ, 348, 2014, f7412.
41. Pope, C.A., Muhlestein, J.B., Anderson, J.L., et al. Short-term exposure to fine particulate matter air pollution is preferentially associated with the risk of ST-segment elevation acute coronary events. J Am Heart Assoc, 4, 2015, e002506.
42. Chen, H., Burnett, R.T., Copes, R., et al. Ambient fine particulate matter and mortality among survivors of myocardial infarction: population-based cohort study. Environ Health Perspect 124 (2016), 1421–1428.
43. Tonne, C., Wilkinson, P., Long-term exposure to air pollution is associated with survival following acute coronary syndrome. Eur Heart J 34 (2013), 1306–1311.
44. Shah, A.S., Lee, K.K., McAllister, D.A., et al. Short term exposure to air pollution and stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ, 350, 2015, h1295.
45. Kulick, E.R., Wellenius, G.A., Boehme, A.K., Sacco, R.L., Elkind, M.S., Residential proximity to major roadways and risk of incident ischemic stroke in NOMAS (the Northern Manhattan Study). Stroke 49 (2018), 835–841.
46. Wing, J.J., Sánchez, B.N., Adar, S.D., et al. Synergism of short-term air pollution exposures and neighborhood disadvantage on initial stroke severity. Stroke 48 (2017), 3126–3129.
47. Shah, A.S., Langrish, J.P., Nair, H., et al. Global association of air pollution and heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 382 (2013), 1039–1048.
48. Liu, H., Tian, Y., Song, J., et al. Effect of ambient air pollution on hospitalization for heart failure in 26 of China's largest cities. Am J Cardiol 121 (2018), 628–633.
49. Liang, R., Zhang, B., Zhao, X., Ruan, Y., Lian, H., Fan, Z., Effect of exposure to PM2.5 on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hypertens 32 (2014), 2130–2140 discussion 2141.
50. Giorgini, P., Di Giosia, P., Grassi, D., Rubenfire, M., Brook, R.D., Ferri, C., Air pollution exposure and blood pressure: an updated review of the literature. Curr Pharm Des 22 (2016), 28–51.
51. Cai, Y., Zhang, B., Ke, W., et al. Associations of short-term and long-term exposure to ambient air pollutants with hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hypertension 68 (2016), 62–70.
52. Yang, B.Y., Qian, Z., Howard, S.W., et al. Global association between ambient air pollution and blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Pollut 235 (2018), 576–588.
53. Urch, B., Silverman, F., Corey, P., et al. Acute blood pressure responses in healthy adults during controlled air pollution exposures. Environ Health Perspect 113 (2005), 1052–1055.
54. Brook, R.D., Urch, B., Dvonch, J.T., et al. Insights into the mechanisms and mediators of the effects of air pollution exposure on blood pressure and vascular function in healthy humans. Hypertension 54 (2009), 659–667.
55. Brook, R.D., Weder, A.B., Rajagopalan, S., “Environmental hypertensionology” the effects of environmental factors on blood pressure in clinical practice and research. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 13 (2011), 836–842.
56. Brook, R.D., Bard, R.L., Morishita, M., et al. Hemodynamic, autonomic, and vascular effects of exposure to coarse particulate matter air pollution from a rural location. Environ Health Perspect 122 (2014), 624–630.
57. Morishita, M., Bard, R.L., Wang, L., et al. The characteristics of coarse particulate matter air pollution associated with alterations in blood pressure and heart rate during controlled exposures. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 25 (2015), 153–159.
58. Byrd, J.B., Morishita, M., Bard, R.L., et al. Acute increase in blood pressure during inhalation of coarse particulate matter air pollution from an urban location. J Am Soc Hypertens 10 (2016), 133–139.e4.
59. Brook, R.D., Sun, Z., Brook, J.R., et al. Extreme air pollution conditions adversely affect blood pressure and insulin resistance: the Air Pollution and Cardiometabolic Disease Study. Hypertension 67 (2016), 77–85.
60. Cosselman, K.E., Krishnan, R.M., Oron, A.P., et al. Blood pressure response to controlled diesel exhaust exposure in human subjects. Hypertension 59 (2012), 943–948.
61. Miller, M.R., Borthwick, S.J., Shaw, C.A., et al. Direct impairment of vascular function by diesel exhaust particulate through reduced bioavailability of endothelium-derived nitric oxide induced by superoxide free radicals. Environ Health Perspect 117 (2009), 611–616.
62. Zhao, X., Sun, Z., Ruan, Y., et al. Personal black carbon exposure influences ambulatory blood pressure: air pollution and cardiometabolic disease (AIRCMD-China) study. Hypertension 63 (2014), 871–877.
63. Rajagopalan, S., Brook, R.D., Personalizing your airspace and your health. J Am Coll Cardiol 65 (2015), 2288–2290.
64. Rajagopalan, S., Brook, R.D., Air pollution and type 2 diabetes: mechanistic insights. Diabetes 61 (2012), 3037–3045.
65. Rao, X., Montresor-Lopez, J., Puett, R., Rajagopalan, S., Brook, R.D., Ambient air pollution: an emerging risk factor for diabetes mellitus. Curr Diab Rep, 15, 2015, 603.
66. Wang, B., Xu, D., Jing, Z., Liu, D., Yan, S., Wang, Y., Effect of long-term exposure to air pollution on type 2 diabetes mellitus risk: a systemic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Eur J Endocrinol 171 (2014), R173–R182.
67. Eze, I.C., Hemkens, L.G., Bucher, H.C., et al. Association between ambient air pollution and diabetes mellitus in Europe and North America: systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Health Perspect 123 (2015), 381–389.
68. Shao, Q., Liu, T., Korantzopoulos, P., Zhang, Z., Zhao, J., Li, G., Association between air pollution and development of atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Heart Lung 45 (2016), 557–562.
69. Baccarelli, A., Martinelli, I., Zanobetti, A., et al. Exposure to particulate air pollution and risk of deep vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med 168 (2008), 920–927.
70. Kan, H., Folsom, A.R., Cushman, M., et al. Traffic exposure and incident venous thromboembolism in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. J Thromb Haemost 9 (2011), 672–678.
71. Mehta, A.J., Zanobetti, A., Bind, M.A., et al. Long-term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter and renal function in older men: the Veterans Administration Normative Aging Study. Environ Health Perspect 124 (2016), 1353–1360.
72. Li, W., Dorans, K.S., Wilker, E.H., et al. Residential proximity to major roadways, fine particulate matter, and adiposity: the Framingham Heart Study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 24 (2016), 2593–2599.
73. Zanobetti, A., Redline, S., Schwartz, J., et al. Associations of PM10 with sleep and sleep-disordered breathing in adults from seven U.S. urban areas. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 182 (2010), 819–825.
74. Zeger, S.L., Dominici, F., Samet, J., Harvesting-resistant estimates of air pollution effects on mortality. Epidemiology 10 (1999), 171–175.
75. Provost, E.B., Madhloum, N., Int Panis, L., De Boever, P., Nawrot, T.S., Carotid intima-media thickness, a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis, and particulate air pollution exposure: the meta-analytical evidence. PLoS One, 10, 2015, e0127014.
76. Araujo, J.A., Nel, A.E., Particulate matter and atherosclerosis: role of particle size, composition and oxidative stress. Part Fibre Toxicol, 6, 2009, 24.
77. Li, N., Xia, T., Nel, A.E., The role of oxidative stress in ambient particulate matter-induced lung diseases and its implications in the toxicity of engineered nanoparticles. Free Radic Biol Med 44 (2008), 1689–1699.
78. Rao, X., Zhong, J., Brook, R.D., Rajagopalan, S., Effect of particulate matter air pollution on cardiovascular oxidative stress pathways. Antioxid Redox Signal 28 (2018), 797–818.
79. Calderón-Garcidueñas, L., Vojdani, A., Blaurock-Busch, E., et al. Air pollution and children: neural and tight junction antibodies and combustion metals, the role of barrier breakdown and brain immunity in neurodegeneration. J Alzheimers Dis 43 (2015), 1039–1058.
80. Xia, T., Li, N., Nel, A.E., Potential health impact of nanoparticles. Annu Rev Public Health 30 (2009), 137–150.
81. Daiber, A., Oelze, M., Steven, S., Kröller-Schön, S., Münzel, T., Taking up the cudgels for the traditional reactive oxygen and nitrogen species detection assays and their use in the cardiovascular system. Redox Biol 12 (2017), 35–49.
82. Lambeth, J.D., NOX enzymes and the biology of reactive oxygen. Nat Rev Immunol 4 (2004), 181–189.
83. Nathan, C., Cunningham-Bussel, A., Beyond oxidative stress: an immunologist's guide to reactive oxygen species. Nat Rev Immunol 13 (2013), 349–361.
84. Roy, A., Gong, J., Thomas, D.C., et al. The cardiopulmonary effects of ambient air pollution and mechanistic pathways: a comparative hierarchical pathway analysis. PLoS One, 9, 2014, e114913.
85. Miyata, R., van Eeden, S.F., The innate and adaptive immune response induced by alveolar macrophages exposed to ambient particulate matter. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 257 (2011), 209–226.
86. Kampfrath, T., Maiseyeu, A., Ying, Z., et al. Chronic fine particulate matter exposure induces systemic vascular dysfunction via NADPH oxidase and TLR4 pathways. Circ Res 108 (2011), 716–726.
87. Shoenfelt, J., Mitkus, R.J., Zeisler, R., et al. Involvement of TLR2 and TLR4 in inflammatory immune responses induced by fine and coarse ambient air particulate matter. J Leukoc Biol 86 (2009), 303–312.
88. Becker, S., Fenton, M.J., Soukup, J.M., Involvement of microbial components and toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in cytokine responses to air pollution particles. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 27 (2002), 611–618.
89. Inoue, K., Takano, H., Yanagisawa, R., et al. The role of toll-like receptor 4 in airway inflammation induced by diesel exhaust particles. Arch Toxicol 80 (2006), 275–279.
90. Lakey, P.S., Berkemeier, T., Tong, H., et al. Chemical exposure-response relationship between air pollutants and reactive oxygen species in the human respiratory tract. Sci Rep, 6, 2016, 32916.
91. Sun, Y., Rogers, J.A., Shaw, J.M., et al. Immunology. How frustration leads to inflammation. Science 320 (2008), 619–620.
92. Haberzettl, P., O'Toole, T.E., Bhatnagar, A., Conklin, D.J., Exposure to fine particulate air pollution causes vascular insulin resistance by inducing pulmonary oxidative stress. Environ Health Perspect 124 (2016), 1830–1839.
93. Haberzettl, P., Conklin, D.J., Abplanalp, W.T., Bhatnagar, A., O'Toole, T.E., Inhalation of fine particulate matter impairs endothelial progenitor cell function via pulmonary oxidative stress. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 38 (2018), 131–142.
94. Miller, M.R., Raftis, J.B., Langrish, J.P., et al. Inhaled nanoparticles accumulate at sites of vascular disease. ACS Nano 11 (2017), 4542–4552.
95. Block, M.L., Elder, A., Auten, R.L., et al. The outdoor air pollution and brain health workshop. Neurotoxicology 33 (2012), 972–984.
96. Li, Z., Potts-Kant, E.N., Garantziotis, S., Foster, W.M., Hollingsworth, J.W., Hyaluronan signaling during ozone-induced lung injury requires TLR4, MyD88, and TIRAP. PLoS One, 6, 2011, e27137.
97. Garantziotis, S., Li, Z., Potts, E.N., et al. Hyaluronan mediates ozone-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in mice. J Biol Chem 291 (2016), 19257–19258.
98. Rao, X., Zhong, J., Maiseyeu, A., et al. CD36-dependent 7-ketocholesterol accumulation in macrophages mediates progression of atherosclerosis in response to chronic air pollution exposure. Circ Res 115 (2014), 770–780.
99. 3 exposure. Toxicol Sci 134 (2013), 304–311.
100. Paffett, M.L., Zychowski, K.E., Sheppard, L., et al. Ozone inhalation impairs coronary artery dilation via intracellular oxidative stress: evidence for serum-borne factors as drivers of systemic toxicity. Toxicol Sci 146 (2015), 244–253.
101. Mumaw, C.L., Levesque, S., McGraw, C., et al. Microglial priming through the lung-brain axis: the role of air pollution-induced circulating factors. FASEB J 30 (2016), 1880–1891.
102. Pöschl, U., Shiraiwa, M., Multiphase chemistry at the atmosphere-biosphere interface influencing climate and public health in the anthropocene. Chem Rev 115 (2015), 4440–4475.
103. phox. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 30 (2010), 2518–2527.
104. Terasaka, N., Yu, S., Yvan-Charvet, L., et al. ABCG1 and HDL protect against endothelial dysfunction in mice fed a high-cholesterol diet. J Clin Invest 118 (2008), 3701–3713.
105. Li, R., Navab, K., Hough, G., et al. Effect of exposure to atmospheric ultrafine particles on production of free fatty acids and lipid metabolites in the mouse small intestine. Environ Health Perspect 123 (2015), 34–41.
106. Yin, F., Lawal, A., Ricks, J., et al. Diesel exhaust induces systemic lipid peroxidation and development of dysfunctional pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory high-density lipoprotein. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 33 (2013), 1153–1161.
107. Sun, Q., Yue, P., Ying, Z., et al. Air pollution exposure potentiates hypertension through reactive oxygen species-mediated activation of Rho/ROCK. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 28 (2008), 1760–1766.
108. Cherng, T.W., Paffett, M.L., Jackson-Weaver, O., Campen, M.J., Walker, B.R., Kanagy, N.L., Mechanisms of diesel-induced endothelial nitric oxide synthase dysfunction in coronary arterioles. Environ Health Perspect 119 (2010), 98–103.
109. Sun, Q., Yue, P., Deiuliis, J.A., et al. Ambient air pollution exaggerates adipose inflammation and insulin resistance in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity. Circulation 119 (2009), 538–546.
110. Araujo, J.A., Barajas, B., Kleinman, M., et al. Ambient particulate pollutants in the ultrafine range promote early atherosclerosis and systemic oxidative stress. Circ Res 102 (2008), 589–596.
111. Mills, N.L., Törnqvist, H., Robinson, S.D., et al. Diesel exhaust inhalation causes vascular dysfunction and impaired endogenous fibrinolysis. Circulation 112 (2005), 3930–3936.
112. Peretz, A., Sullivan, J.H., Leotta, D.F., et al. Diesel exhaust inhalation elicits acute vasoconstriction in vivo. Environ Health Perspect 116 (2008), 937–942.
113. Mills, N.L., Törnqvist, H., Gonzalez, M.C., et al. Ischemic and thrombotic effects of dilute diesel-exhaust inhalation in men with coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 357 (2007), 1075–1082.
114. O'Toole, T.E., Hellmann, J., Wheat, L., et al. Episodic exposure to fine particulate air pollution decreases circulating levels of endothelial progenitor cells. Circ Res 107 (2010), 200–203.
115. Haberzettl, P., Lee, J., Duggineni, D., et al. Exposure to ambient air fine particulate matter prevents VEGF-induced mobilization of endothelial progenitor cells from the bone marrow. Environ Health Perspect 120 (2012), 848–856.
116. DeJarnett, N., Yeager, R., Conklin, D.J., et al. Residential proximity to major roadways is associated with increased levels of AC133+ circulating angiogenic cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 35 (2015), 2468–2477.
117. Wold, L.E., Ying, Z., Hutchinson, K.R., et al. Cardiovascular remodeling in response to long-term exposure to fine particulate matter air pollution. Circ Heart Fail 5 (2012), 452–461.
118. Kurhanewicz, N., McIntosh-Kastrinsky, R., Tong, H., et al. TRPA1 mediates changes in heart rate variability and cardiac mechanical function in mice exposed to acrolein. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 324 (2017), 51–60.
119. Robertson, S., Thomson, A.L., Carter, R., et al. Pulmonary diesel particulate increases susceptibility to myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury via activation of sensory TRPV1 and β1 adrenoreceptors. Part Fibre Toxicol, 11, 2014, 12.
120. Fariss, M.W., Gilmour, M.I., Reilly, C.A., Liedtke, W., Ghio, A.J., Emerging mechanistic targets in lung injury induced by combustion-generated particles. Toxicol Sci 132 (2013), 253–267.
121. Hazari, M.S., Haykal-Coates, N., Winsett, D.W., et al. TRPA1 and sympathetic activation contribute to increased risk of triggered cardiac arrhythmias in hypertensive rats exposed to diesel exhaust. Environ Health Perspect 119 (2011), 951–957.
122. Simon, S.A., Liedtke, W., How irritating: the role of TRPA1 in sensing cigarette smoke and aerogenic oxidants in the airways. J Clin Invest 118 (2008), 2383–2386.
123. Perez, C.M., Hazari, M.S., Farraj, A.K., Role of autonomic reflex arcs in cardiovascular responses to air pollution exposure. Cardiovasc Toxicol 15 (2015), 69–78.
124. Bartoli, C.R., Wellenius, G.A., Coull, B.A., et al. Concentrated ambient particles alter myocardial blood flow during acute ischemia in conscious canines. Environ Health Perspect 117 (2009), 333–337.
125. 2.5 increases mouse blood pressure through abnormal activation of the sympathetic nervous system: a role for hypothalamic inflammation. Environ Health Perspect 122 (2014), 79–86.
126. Calderón-Garcidueñas, L., Solt, A.C., Henríquez-Roldán, C., et al. Long-term air pollution exposure is associated with neuroinflammation, an altered innate immune response, disruption of the blood-brain barrier, ultrafine particulate deposition, and accumulation of amyloid β-42 and α-synuclein in children and young adults. Toxicol Pathol 36 (2008), 289–310.
127. Aragon, M.J., Topper, L., Tyler, C.R., et al. Serum-borne bioactivity caused by pulmonary multiwalled carbon nanotubes induces neuroinflammation via blood-brain barrier impairment. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114 (2017), E1968–E1976.
128. Liu, C., Xu, X., Bai, Y., et al. Air pollution-mediated susceptibility to inflammation and insulin resistance: influence of CCR2 pathways in mice. Environ Health Perspect 122 (2014), 17–26.
129. Nemmar, A., Hoet, P.H., Dinsdale, D., Vermylen, J., Hoylaerts, M.F., Nemery, B., Diesel exhaust particles in lung acutely enhance experimental peripheral thrombosis. Circulation 107 (2003), 1202–1208.
130. Lucking, A.J., Lundback, M., Mills, N.L., et al. Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man. Eur Heart J 29 (2008), 3043–3051.
131. Jacobs, L., Emmerechts, J., Mathieu, C., et al. Air pollution related prothrombotic changes in persons with diabetes. Environ Health Perspect 118 (2010), 191–196.
132. Rao, X., Patel, P., Puett, R., Rajagopalan, S., Air pollution as a risk factor for type 2 diabetes. Toxicol Sci 143 (2015), 231–241.
133. Brook, R.D., Xu, X., Bard, R.L., et al. Reduced metabolic insulin sensitivity following sub-acute exposures to low levels of ambient fine particulate matter air pollution. Sci Total Environ 448 (2013), 66–71.
134. Liu, C., Fonken, L.K., Wang, A., et al. Central IKKβ inhibition prevents air pollution mediated peripheral inflammation and exaggeration of type II diabetes. Part Fibre Toxicol, 11, 2014, 53.
135. Miller, D.B., Ghio, A.J., Karoly, E.D., et al. Ozone exposure increases circulating stress hormones and lipid metabolites in humans. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 193 (2016), 1382–1391.
136. Breton, C.V., Marsit, C.J., Faustman, E., et al., the Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research Center's Epigenetics Working Group. Small-magnitude effect sizes in epigenetic end points are important in children's environmental health studies. Environ Health Perspect 125 (2017), 511–526.
137. Wang, T., Pehrsson, E.C., Purushotham, D., et al. The NIEHS TaRGET II Consortium and environmental epigenomics. Nat Biotechnol 36 (2018), 225–227.
138. GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet 388 (2016), 1659–1724.
139. Erqou, S., Clougherty, J.E., Olafiranye, O., et al. Particulate matter air pollution and racial differences in cardiovascular disease risk. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 38 (2018), 935–942.
140. Bell, M.L., Zanobetti, A., Dominici, F., Evidence on vulnerability and susceptibility to health risks associated with short-term exposure to particulate matter: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 178 (2013), 865–876.
141. Cooper, L.T. Jr., Keren, A., Sliwa, K., Matsumori, A., Mensah, G.A., The global burden of myocarditis: part 1: a systematic literature review for the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors 2010 study. Glob Heart 9 (2014), 121–129.
142. Franklin, B.A., Brook, R., Arden Pope, C. III, Air pollution and cardiovascular disease. Curr Probl Cardiol 40 (2015), 207–238.
143. Hadley, M.B., Baumgartner, J., Vedanthan, R., Developing a clinical approach to air pollution and cardiovascular health. Circulation 137 (2018), 725–742.
144. Brook, R.D., Newby, D.E., Rajagopalan, S., Air pollution and cardiometabolic disease: an update and call for clinical trials. Am J Hypertens 31 (2017), 1–10.
145. Tong, H., Dietary and pharmacological intervention to mitigate the cardiopulmonary effects of air pollution toxicity. Biochim Biophys Acta 1860 (2016), 2891–2898.
146. Tainio, M., de Nazelle, A.J., Götschi, T., et al. Can air pollution negate the health benefits of cycling and walking?. Prev Med 87 (2016), 233–236.
147. Sinharay, R., Gong, J., Barratt, B., et al. Respiratory and cardiovascular responses to walking down a traffic-polluted road compared with walking in a traffic-free area in participants aged 60 years and older with chronic lung or heart disease and age-matched healthy controls: a randomised, crossover study. Lancet 391 (2018), 339–349.
148. Smith, K.R., Jerrett, M., Anderson, H.R., et al. Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: health implications of short-lived greenhouse pollutants. Lancet 374 (2009), 2091–2103.
149. Samet, J.M., Burke, T.A., Goldstein, B.D., The Trump administration and the environment: heed the science. N Engl J Med 376 (2017), 1182–1188.
150. Weichenthal, S., Pinault, L.L., Burnett, R.T., Impact of oxidant gases on the relationship between outdoor fine particulate air pollution and nonaccidental, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality. Sci Rep, 7, 2017, 16401.