Novel insights into acute kidney injury–chronic kidney disease continuum and the role of renin–angiotensin system

Journal of the Formosan Medical Association

Volumn 116, Issue 9, 2017, Pages 652-659

  Chou, Yu Hsiang ^a,b   Huang, Tao Min ^a   Chu, Tzong Shinn ^a  

^a NATIONAL TAIWAN UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Taiwan)

^b NATIONAL TAIWAN UNIVERSITY   (Taiwan)

Author keywords

Acute kidney injury; Chronic kidney disease; Renin angiotensin system

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CREATININE; SPIRONOLACTONE;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; CELL REGENERATION; CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE; CONVALESCENCE; CREATININE BLOOD LEVEL; DISORDERS OF MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTIONS; EPIGENETICS; G2 PHASE CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINT; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION; HUMAN; INFLAMMATORY INFILTRATE; KIDNEY FUNCTION; KIDNEY TUBULE EPITHELIUM; M PHASE CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINT; NONHUMAN; RENAL PROTECTION; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; ANIMAL; CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINT; COMPLICATION; GENETIC EPIGENESIS; MITOCHONDRION; PHYSIOLOGY;

ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY; ANIMALS; BIOMARKERS; CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS; EPIGENESIS, GENETIC; HUMANS; MITOCHONDRIA; RENAL INSUFFICIENCY, CHRONIC; RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM;

EID: 85020416083     PISSN: 09296646     EISSN: 18760821     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jfma.2017.04.026     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. Uchino, S., Kellum, J.A., Bellomo, R., Doig, G.S., Morimatsu, H., Morgera, S., et al. Acute renal failure in critically ill patients: a multinational, multicenter study. JAMA 294 (2005), 813–818.
2. Lafrance, J.P., Miller, D.R., Acute kidney injury associates with increased long-term mortality. J Am Soc Nephrol 21 (2010), 345–352.
3. Xu, X., Nie, S., Liu, Z., Chen, C., Xu, G., Zha, Y., et al. Epidemiology and clinical correlates of AKI in Chinese hospitalized adults. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10 (2015), 1510–1518.
4. Yang, L., Xing, G., Wang, L., Wu, Y., Li, S., Xu, G., et al. Acute kidney injury in China: a cross-sectional survey. Lancet 386 (2015), 1465–1471.
5. Mehta, R.L., Burdmann, E.A., Cerda, J., Feehally, J., Finkelstein, F., Garcia-Garcia, G., et al. Recognition and management of acute kidney injury in the International Society of Nephrology 0by25 Global Snapshot: a multinational cross-sectional study. Lancet 387 (2016), 2017–2025.
6. Kuo, G., Yang, S.Y., Chuang, S.S., Fan, P.C., Chang, C.H., Hsiao, Y.C., et al. Using acute kidney injury severity and scoring systems to predict outcome in patients with burn injury. J Formos Med Assoc 115 (2016), 1046–1052.
7. Bellomo, R., Defining, quantifying, and classifying acute renal failure. Crit Care Clin 21 (2005), 223–237.
8. Lo, L.J., Go, A.S., Chertow, G.M., McCulloch, C.E., Fan, D., Ordonez, J.D., et al. Dialysis-requiring acute renal failure increases the risk of progressive chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 76 (2009), 893–899.
9. Ishani, A., Nelson, D., Clothier, B., Schult, T., Nugent, S., Greer, N., et al. The magnitude of acute serum creatinine increase after cardiac surgery and the risk of chronic kidney disease, progression of kidney disease, and death. Arch Intern Med 171 (2011), 226–233.
10. Wu, P.C., Wu, V.C., the NSARF Group. Acute kidney injury: a forgotten CKD factor?. Acta Nephrol 27 (2013), 11–12.
11. Singer, E., Elger, A., Elitok, S., Kettritz, R., Nickolas, T.L., Barasch, J., et al. Urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin distinguishes pre-renal from intrinsic renal failure and predicts outcomes. Kidney Int 80 (2011), 405–414.
12. Thakar, C.V., Christianson, A., Himmelfarb, J., Leonard, A.C., Acute kidney injury episodes and chronic kidney disease risk in diabetes mellitus. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6 (2011), 2567–2572.
13. Lai, C.F., Wu, V.C., Huang, T.M., Yeh, Y.C., Wang, K.C., Han, Y.Y., et al. Kidney function decline after a non-dialysis-requiring acute kidney injury is associated with higher long-term mortality in critically ill survivors. Crit Care, 16, 2012, R123.
14. Heung, M., Steffick, D.E., Zivin, K., Gillespie, B.W., Banerjee, T., Hsu, C.Y., et al. Acute kidney injury recovery pattern and subsequent risk of CKD: an analysis of Veterans Health Administration Data. Am J Kidney Dis 67 (2016), 742–752.
15. Finkenstaedt, J.T., Merrill, J.P., Renal function after recovery from acute renal failure. N Engl J Med 254 (1956), 1023–1026.
16. Newsome, B.B., Warnock, D.G., McClellan, W.M., Herzog, C.A., Kiefe, C.I., Eggers, P.W., et al. Long-term risk of mortality and end-stage renal disease among the elderly after small increases in serum creatinine level during hospitalization for acute myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 168 (2008), 609–616.
17. Wu, V.C., Wu, P.C., Wu, C.H., Huang, T.M., Chang, C.H., Tsai, P.R., et al. The impact of acute kidney injury on the long-term risk of stroke. J Am Heart Assoc, 3, 2014, e000933.
18. Chen, P.M., Lai, T.S., Chen, P.Y., Lai, C.F., Wu, V.C., Chiang, W.C., et al. Renoprotective effect of combining pentoxifylline with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin II receptor blocker in advanced chronic kidney disease. J Formos Med Assoc 113 (2014), 219–226.
19. Wu, P.C., Wu, C.J., Lin, C.J., Wu, V.C., Long-term risk of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage after advanced AKI. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10 (2015), 353–362.
20. Shiao, C.C., Wu, P.C., Huang, T.M., Lai, T.S., Yang, W.S., Wu, C.H., et al. Long-term remote organ consequences following acute kidney injury. Crit Care, 19, 2015, 438.
21. Chawla, L.S., Eggers, P.W., Star, R.A., Kimmel, P.L., Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease as interconnected syndromes. N Engl J Med 371 (2014), 58–66.
22. Yang, L., Besschetnova, T.Y., Brooks, C.R., Shah, J.V., Bonventre, J.V., Epithelial cell cycle arrest in G2/M mediates kidney fibrosis after injury. Nat Med 16 (2010), 535–543.
23. Ferenbach, D.A., Bonventre, J.V., Mechanisms of maladaptive repair after AKI leading to accelerated kidney ageing and CKD. Nat Rev Nephrol 11 (2015), 264–276.
24. Wu, C.F., Chiang, W.C., Lai, C.F., Chang, F.C., Chen, Y.T., Chou, Y.H., et al. Transforming growth factor beta-1 stimulates profibrotic epithelial signaling to activate pericyte-myofibroblast transition in obstructive kidney fibrosis. Am J Pathol 182 (2013), 118–131.
25. Lin, S.L., Chang, F.C., Schrimpf, C., Chen, Y.T., Wu, C.F., Wu, V.C., et al. Targeting endothelium-pericyte cross talk by inhibiting VEGF receptor signaling attenuates kidney microvascular rarefaction and fibrosis. Am J Pathol 178 (2011), 911–923.
26. Chang, F.C., Chou, Y.H., Chen, Y.T., Lin, S.L., Novel insights into pericyte–myofibroblast transition and therapeutic targets in renal fibrosis. J Formos Med Assoc 111 (2012), 589–598.
27. Bechtel, W., McGoohan, S., Zeisberg, E.M., Muller, G.A., Kalbacher, H., Salant, D.J., et al. Methylation determines fibroblast activation and fibrogenesis in the kidney. Nat Med 16 (2010), 544–550.
28. Rodriguez-Romo, R., Berman, N., Gomez, A., Bobadilla, N.A., Epigenetic regulation in the acute kidney injury (AKI) to chronic kidney disease transition (CKD). Nephrology, 2015;May 25, 10.1111/nep.12521 [Epub ahead of print].
29. Chang, Y.T., Yang, C.C., Pan, S.Y., Chou, Y.H., Chang, F.C., Lai, C.F., et al. DNA methyltransferase inhibition restores erythropoietin production in fibrotic murine kidneys. J Clin Invest 126 (2016), 721–731.
30. Zager, R.A., Johnson, A.C., Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury upregulates histone-modifying enzyme systems and alters histone expression at proinflammatory/profibrotic genes. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 296 (2009), F1032–F1041.
31. Tang, J., Zhuang, S., Epigenetics in acute kidney injury. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 24 (2015), 351–358.
32. Chang, F.C., Lin, S.L., The role of angiopoietin-2 in progressive renal fibrosis. J Formos Med Assoc 112 (2013), 175–176.
33. Horbelt, M., Lee, S.Y., Mang, H.E., Knipe, N.L., Sado, Y., Kribben, A., et al. Acute and chronic microvascular alterations in a mouse model of ischemic acute kidney injury. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 293 (2007), F688–F695.
34. Chang, F.C., Chiang, W.C., Tsai, M.H., Chou, Y.H., Pan, S.Y., Chang, Y.T., et al. Angiopoietin-2–induced arterial stiffness in CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 25 (2014), 1198–1209.
35. Kramann, R., Wongboonsin, J., Chang-Panesso, M., Machado, F.G., Humphreys, B.D., Gli1+ pericyte loss induces capillary rarefaction and proximal tubular injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 28 (2017), 776–784.
36. Brenner, B.M., Cooper, M.E., de Zeeuw, D., Keane, W.F., Mitch, W.E., Parving, H.H., et al. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 345 (2001), 861–869.
37. Lewis, E.J., Hunsicker, L.G., Clarke, W.R., Berl, T., Pohl, M.A., Lewis, J.B., et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Eng J Med 345 (2001), 851–860.
38. Molnar, M.Z., Kalantar-Zadeh, K., Lott, E.H., Lu, J.L., Malakauskas, S.M., Ma, J.Z., et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, angiotensin receptor blocker use, and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 63 (2014), 650–658.
39. Lai, T.S., Chiang, W.C., Chen, Y.M., Pentoxifylline: evidence strong enough for renoprotection?. J Formos Med Assoc 115 (2016), 591–592.
40. Chou, Y.H., Tsai, T.J., Autonomic dysfunction in chronic kidney disease: an old problem in a new era. J Formos Med Assoc 115 (2016), 687–688.
41. Pan, S.Y., Chiang, W.C., Chen, P.M., Liu, H.H., Chou, Y.H., Lai, T.S., et al. Restricted use of erythropoiesis-stimulating agent is safe and associated with deferred dialysis initiation in stage 5 chronic kidney disease. Sci Rep, 7, 2017, 44013.
42. Rodriguez-Romo, R., Benitez, K., Barrera-Chimal, J., Perez-Villalva, R., Gomez, A., Aguilar-Leon, D., et al. AT1 receptor antagonism before ischemia prevents the transition of acute kidney injury to chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 89 (2016), 363–373.
43. Cheng, S.Y., Chou, Y.H., Liao, F.L., Lin, C.C., Chang, F.C., Liu, C.H., et al. Losartan reduces ensuing chronic kidney disease and mortality after acute kidney injury. Sci Rep, 6, 2016, 34265.
44. Zhang, J., Rudemiller, N.P., Patel, M.B., Wei, Q., Karlovich, N.S., Jeffs, A.D., et al. Competing actions of type 1 angiotensin II receptors expressed on T lymphocytes and kidney epithelium during cisplatin-induced AKI. J Am Soc Nephol 27 (2016), 2257–2264.
45. Chou, Y.H., Huang, T.M., Pan, S.Y., Chang, C.H., Lai, C.F., Wu, V.C., et al. Renin-angiotensin system inhibitor is associated with lower risk of ensuing chronic kidney disease after functional recovery from acute kidney injury. Sci Rep, 7, 2017, 46518.
46. Bellomo, R., Cass, A., Cole, L., Finfer, S., Gallagher, M., Lo, S., et al. Intensity of continuous renal-replacement therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 361 (2009), 1627–1638.
47. Okusa, M.D., Davenport, A., Reading between the (guide)lines–the KDIGO practice guideline on acute kidney injury in the individual patient. Kidney Int 85 (2014), 39–48.
48. Coca, S.G., Singanamala, S., Parikh, C.R., Chronic kidney disease after acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Kidney Int 81 (2012), 442–448.
49. Chawla, L.S., Amdur, R.L., Amodeo, S., Kimmel, P.L., Palant, C.E., The severity of acute kidney injury predicts progression to chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 79 (2011), 1361–1369.
50. Wald, R., Quinn, R.R., Luo, J., Li, P., Scales, D.C., Mamdani, M.M., et al. Chronic dialysis and death among survivors of acute kidney injury requiring dialysis. JAMA 302 (2009), 1179–1185.
51. Lin, S.L., Li, B., Rao, S., Yeo, E.J., Hudson, T.E., Nowlin, B.T., et al. Macrophage Wnt7b is critical for kidney repair and regeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107 (2010), 4194–4199.
52. Lin, S.L., Duffield, J.S., Macrophages in kidney injury and repair. Acta Nephrol 26 (2012), 45–57.
53. Ko, G.J., Grigoryev, D.N., Linfert, D., Jang, H.R., Watkins, T., Cheadle, C., et al. Transcriptional analysis of kidneys during repair from AKI reveals possible roles for NGAL and KIM-1 as biomarkers of AKI-to-CKD transition. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 298 (2010), F1472–F1483.
54. Sato, Y., Mii, A., Hamazaki, Y., Fujita, H., Nakata, H., Masuda, K., et al. Heterogeneous fibroblasts underlie age-dependent tertiary lymphoid tissues in the kidney. JCI Insight, 1, 2016, e87680.
55. Zhan, M., Brooks, C., Liu, F., Sun, L., Dong, Z., Mitochondrial dynamics: regulatory mechanisms and emerging role in renal pathophysiology. Kidney Int 83 (2013), 568–581.
56. Funk, J.A., Schnellmann, R.G., Persistent disruption of mitochondrial homeostasis after acute kidney injury. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 302 (2012), F853–F864.
57. Hasegawa, K., Wakino, S., Yoshioka, K., Tatematsu, S., Hara, Y., Minakuchi, H., et al. Kidney-specific overexpression of Sirt1 protects against acute kidney injury by retaining peroxisome function. J Biol Chem 285 (2010), 13045–13056.
58. He, W., Wang, Y., Zhang, M.Z., You, L., Davis, L.S., Fan, H., et al. Sirt1 activation protects the mouse renal medulla from oxidative injury. J Clin Invest 120 (2010), 1056–1068.
59. Rasbach, K.A., Schnellmann, R.G., Isoflavones promote mitochondrial biogenesis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 325 (2008), 536–543.
60. Brooks, C., Wei, Q., Cho, S.G., Dong, Z., Regulation of mitochondrial dynamics in acute kidney injury in cell culture and rodent models. J Clin Invest 119 (2009), 1275–1285.
61. Morigi, M., Perico, L., Rota, C., Longaretti, L., Conti, S., Rottoli, D., et al. Sirtuin 3-dependent mitochondrial dynamic improvements protect against acute kidney injury. J Clin Invest 125 (2015), 715–726.
62. Ishimoto, Y., Inagi, R., Mitochondria: a therapeutic target in acute kidney injury. Nephrol Dial Transplant 31 (2016), 1062–1069.
63. Humphreys, B.D., Czerniak, S., DiRocco, D.P., Hasnain, W., Cheema, R., Bonventre, J.V., Repair of injured proximal tubule does not involve specialized progenitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108 (2011), 9226–9231.
64. Endo, T., Nakamura, J., Sato, Y., Asada, M., Yamada, R., Takase, M., et al. Exploring the origin and limitations of kidney regeneration. J Pathol 236 (2015), 251–263.
65. Lin, S.L., Chen, Y.M., Chien, C.T., Chiang, W.C., Tsai, C.C., Tsai, T.J., Pentoxifylline attenuated the renal disease progression in rats with remnant kidney. J Am Soc Nephrol 13 (2002), 2916–2929.
66. Venkatachalam, M.A., Griffin, K.A., Lan, R., Geng, H., Saikumar, P., Bidani, A.K., Acute kidney injury: a springboard for progression in chronic kidney disease. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 298 (2010), F1078–F1094.
67. Conger, J.D., Robinette, J.B., Hammond, W.S., Differences in vascular reactivity in models of ischemic acute renal failure. Kidney Int 39 (1991), 1087–1097.
68. Chen, X., Wang, C.C., Song, S.M., Wei, S.Y., Li, J.S., Zhao, S.L., et al. The administration of erythropoietin attenuates kidney injury induced by ischemia/reperfusion with increased activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. J Formos Med Assoc 114 (2015), 430–437.
69. Yamamoto, T., Tada, T., Brodsky, S.V., Tanaka, H., Noiri, E., Kajiya, F., et al. Intravital videomicroscopy of peritubular capillaries in renal ischemia. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 282 (2002), F1150–F1155.
70. Schrimpf, C., Duffield, J.S., Mechanisms of fibrosis: the role of the pericyte. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 20 (2011), 297–305.
71. Lee, S.Y., Horbelt, M., Mang, H.E., Knipe, N.L., Bacallao, R.L., Sado, Y., et al. MMP-9 gene deletion mitigates microvascular loss in a model of ischemic acute kidney injury. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 301 (2011), F101–F109.
72. Schrimpf, C., Xin, C., Campanholle, G., Gill, S.E., Stallcup, W., Lin, S.L., et al. Pericyte TIMP3 and ADAMTS1 modulate vascular stability after kidney injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 23 (2012), 868–883.
73. Lin, S.L., Kisseleva, T., Brenner, D.A., Duffield, J.S., Pericytes and perivascular fibroblasts are the primary source of collagen-producing cells in obstructive fibrosis of the kidney. Am J Pathol 173 (2008), 1617–1627.
74. Ruster, C., Wolf, G., Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and progression of renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 17 (2006), 2985–2991.
75. Wolf, G., Wenzel, U., Burns, K.D., Harris, R.C., Stahl, R.A., Thaiss, F., Angiotensin II activates nuclear transcription factor-kappaB through AT1 and AT2 receptors. Kidney Int 61 (2002), 1986–1995.
76. Wolf, G., Bohlender, J., Bondeva, T., Roger, T., Thaiss, F., Wenzel, U.O., Angiotensin II upregulates toll-like receptor 4 on mesangial cells. J Am Soc Nephrol 17 (2006), 1585–1593.
77. Rodriguez-Vita, J., Sanchez-Lopez, E., Esteban, V., Ruperez, M., Egido, J., Ruiz-Ortega, M., Angiotensin II activates the Smad pathway in vascular smooth muscle cells by a transforming growth factor-beta-independent mechanism. Circulation 111 (2005), 2509–2517.
78. Wolf, G., Link between angiotensin II and TGF-beta in the kidney. Miner Electrolyte Metab 24 (1998), 174–180.
79. Lin, S.L., Chen, R.H., Chen, Y.M., Chiang, W.C., Lai, C.F., Wu, K.D., et al. Pentoxifylline attenuates tubulointerstitial fibrosis by blocking Smad3/4-activated transcription and profibrogenic effects of connective tissue growth factor. J Am Soc Nephrol 16 (2005), 2702–2713.
80. Bellomo, R., Auriemma, S., Fabbri, A., D'Onofrio, A., Katz, N., McCullough, P.A., et al. The pathophysiology of cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury (CSA-AKI). Int J Artif Organs 31 (2008), 166–178.
81. Cao, W., Jin, L., Zhou, Z., Yang, M., Wu, C., Wu, L., et al. Overexpression of intrarenal renin-angiotensin system in human acute tubular necrosis. Kidney Blood Press Res 41 (2016), 746–756.
82. Rosen, S., Stillman, I.E., Acute tubular necrosis is a syndrome of physiologic and pathologic dissociation. J Am Soc Nephrol 19 (2008), 871–875.
83. Yang, X., Chen, C., Tian, J., Zha, Y., Xiong, Y., Sun, Z., et al. Urinary angiotensinogen level predicts AKI in acute decompensated heart failure: a prospective, two-stage study. J Am Soc Nephrol 26 (2015), 2032–2041.
84. Hsu, C.Y., Hsu, R.K., Yang, J., Ordonez, J.D., Zheng, S., Go, A.S., Elevated BP after AKI. J Am Soc Nephrol 27 (2016), 914–923.
85. Huang, T.M., Wu, V.C., Young, G.H., Chang, F.C., Tsai, P.R., Ko, W.J., et al. Association of pre-operative ACEIs or ARBs with a reduction in post-operative AKI after elective CABG. J Am Soc Nephrol, 27, 2010, 75A.
86. Benedetto, U., Sciarretta, S., Roscitano, A., Fiorani, B., Refice, S., Angeloni, E., et al. Preoperative Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and acute kidney injury after coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg 86 (2008), 1160–1165.
87. Arora, P., Rajagopalam, S., Ranjan, R., Kolli, H., Singh, M., Venuto, R., et al. Preoperative use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers is associated with increased risk for acute kidney injury after cardiovascular surgery. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3 (2008), 1266–1273.
88. Drenger, B., Fontes, M.L., Miao, Y., Mathew, J.P., Gozal, Y., Aronson, S., et al. Patterns of use of perioperative angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in coronary artery bypass graft surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass: effects on in-hospital morbidity and mortality. Circulation 126 (2012), 261–269.
89. Hillis, L.D., Smith, P.K., Anderson, J.L., Bittl, J.A., Bridges, C.R., Byrne, J.G., et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA guideline for coronary artery bypass graft surgery: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 143 (2012), 4–34.
90. Alge, J.L., Arthur, J.M., Biomarkers of AKI: a review of mechanistic relevance and potential therapeutic implications. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10 (2015), 147–155.
91. Ichimura, T., Asseldonk, E.J., Humphreys, B.D., Gunaratnam, L., Duffield, J.S., Bonventre, J.V., Kidney injury molecule-1 is a phosphatidylserine receptor that confers a phagocytic phenotype on epithelial cells. J Clin Invest 118 (2008), 1657–1668.
92. Mishra, J., Mori, K., Ma, Q., Kelly, C., Yang, J., Mitsnefes, M., et al. Amelioration of ischemic acute renal injury by neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin. J Am Soc Nephrol 15 (2004), 3073–3082.
93. Macedo, E., Mehta, R.L., Preventing acute kidney injury. Crit Care Clin 31 (2015), 773–784.
94. Chou, Y.H., Pan, S.Y., Yang, C.H., Lin, S.L., Stem cells and kidney regeneration. J Formos Med Assoc 113 (2014), 201–209.
95. Chou, Y.H., Chen, Y.F., Pan, S.Y., Huang, T.M., Yang, F.J., Shen, W.C., et al. The role of brain natriuretic peptide in predicting renal outcome and fluid management in critically ill patients. J Formos Med Assoc 114 (2015), 1187–1196.
96. Chou, Y.H., Huang, T.M., Wu, V.C., Wang, C.Y., Shiao, C.C., Lai, C.F., et al. Impact of timing of renal replacement therapy initiation on outcome of septic acute kidney injury. Crit Care, 15, 2011, R134.
97. Mehta, R., Bihorac, A., Selby, N.M., Quan, H., Goldstein, S.L., Kellum, J.A., et al. Establishing a continuum of acute kidney injury – tracing AKI using data source linkage and long-term follow-up: workgroup statements from the 15th ADQI Consensus Conference. Can J Kidney Health Dis, 3, 2016, 13.
98. Barrera-Chimal, J., Perez-Villalva, R., Rodriguez-Romo, R., Reyna, J., Uribe, N., Gamba, G., et al. Spironolactone prevents chronic kidney disease caused by ischemic acute kidney injury. Kidney Int 83 (2013), 93–103.